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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



One-Book Course in English 

In which the pupil is led by a series of Observation 

Lessons to discover and apply the Principles 

that underlie the construction of the 

Sentence, and that control the 

use of Grammatical Forms. 



A COMPLETE TEXT-BOOK ON GRAMMAR 
AND COMPOSITION. 



FOR SCHOOLS WHOSE CURRICULUM WILL NOT ALLOW TIME 
FOR THE AUTHORS' TWO-ROOK COURSE. 



BY 

Alokzo Reed, A.M., and Braikerd Kellogg, LL.D., 

AUTHORS OF "GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH," 
"HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH," 

NEW YORK: ^TuJlI/ 

MAYNARD, MERRILL & CO., 

1895. 



TEini 
.■R+* 

)8^ 



Copyrig-ht, 1895, by 
Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg. 



Press of J. J. Little & Co. 
A.stor Place, New York 



PEEFACE. 



To induce habits of exhaustive observation and to develop power to 
use the results of observation as material for thought being the aim 
and end of teaching, it follows that the relative position of any school 
study must be determined by the extent to which it contributes to 
this end. 

First place in school instruction is popularly claimed for natural 
history\and the physical sciences, on the ground that these afford the 
only means for developing a pupil in the line of his natural activities, 
and that the knowledge result of these studies most closely concerns 
the practical business of living. 

While appreciating the educational value of the natural sciences, we 
claim for the study of language, properly taught, results equal, if not 
superior, both in the habit of mind induced and in the practical value 
of the knowledge accumulated. 

To depreciate all systematic study of language because the methods 
of the past may have been irrational and unproductive is as unwise as 
it would be to rule all science out of the common school because it 
is often improperly presented as a series of dry formulas and tech- 
nical terms. 

Grammar should be learned from the language inductively, but it 
should be learned. Popular maxims are sometimes mischievous and 
misleading. We do not "learn to do" by simply "doing," but by 



4 Preface. 

conscious, intelligent doing. Many persons read much who do not 
write well, and many write much who do not write clearly and forcibly, 
because they have never acquired the habit of attending to the form of 
language. Thought will not always find for itself adequate expression. 
On the contrary, power to think is limited by power to express ; to open 
the channels of thought is to increase the flow of thought. 

An attempt has been made in this book to present the study of lan- 
guage in a carefully graded series of inductive lessons, designed to 
secure not only increased power of expression but also habits of close, 
critical observation and a thorough discipline of the taste and the 
judgment. 

As material for object lessons language is always available ; the 
variety of specimens is unlimited ; the best is easily furnished in every 
school-room. To note the various relations of words and the inflec- 
tional forms that mark these relations ; to discover rules and principles 
by observing the recurrence of certain forms under certain conditions 
or by generalizing known facts ; to trace the almost unlimited shades 
of meaning that may be had by changes in the grammatical structure 
and the arrangement of a sentence, or by the use of synonymous forms ; 
to study carefully both expression and thought that the full force of 
the thought may be obtained from the expression, and that the form 
of the expression may be exactly fitted to the thought — these and sim- 
ilar exercises suggested and outlined in the following pages will fur- 
nish abundant opportunity for most interesting and profitable investi- 
gation. 

In addition to discipline and facility of expression, the natural out- 
come of such a course is ability and inclination to secure thought 



Preface. 5 

from the printed page, and to put the mind in sympathy with the 
best minds of all ages. On such outcome we base our claim for the 
superior advantages of the study of language when brought into 
competition with the study of the natural sciences or other subjects. 
We are encouraged to believe that, while departing so widely from the 
methods of the old-time grammar, we have not fallen into the loose, 
illogical ways of the modern language-book. Nor have we attempted 
to court favors from a double constituency by simply interlarding a 
course of technical grammar with lessons in composition. Teachers 
and text-book makers seem to have been slow to discover the true rela- 
tion between English grammar and English composition. Classifica- 
tion, inflection, punctuation, and all the principles that underlie the 
construction of a complete discourse grow naturally out of the develop- 
ment of the sentence. The following lessons were prepared with the 
conviction that the study of English grammar is the study of the 
English language, and that the study of the English language is the 
study of the English sentence. 



Methods of Teaching Composition. 



Through copious reading and persistent practice in writing, ability 
to compose may, in time, be acquired without special instruction. 
But, with no knowledge of principles, no standard of criticism, no 
power to discriminate the good, the bad, and the indifferent, general 
reading, with its conflicting usages, and practice, with no definite aim 
or method, lead to excellence in composition by a long and circuitous 
route. 

Direct, systematic, consecutive instruction in English composition 
should begin at the beginning and continue to the end of every school 
course. On no subject, however, is teaching more vague and irregu- 
lar. Even when composition has been awarded a place in the daily 
programme, the hour for recitation is usually given to the subject- 
matter rather than to the principles of construction ; general-informa- 
tion lessons and miscellaneous criticism conveniently fill up the time 
in the absence of a well-defined plan for language work. 

Every exercise in composition should be directed to some definite 
end, should illustrate some important principle or form of construc- 
tion. Of course, gross errors in other directions should not pass un- 
noticed, but their correction should, as far as possible, be made inci- 
dental to the leading purpose of the lesson. 

As the different principles become familiar, they should be immedi- 
ately applied to the pupil's own composition, and kept constantly in 
review. The zeal and interest of the learner will be stimulated by the 
assurance that he is putting himself in possession of the standards by 
which the merits and the defects of language are judged, and that he 
will no longer need to take all authority at second-hand. 

The chief business of the teacher of composition is to cultivate in 



^ Methods of Teaching Composition. 

thft pupil power to discriminate the good and the bad in what he reads 
and in what he writes. 

As literary criticism is based on the laws that control the construc- 
tion of the sentence, it follows that a scientific and progressive series 
of composition lessons must conform to the natural and orderly develop- 
ment of the sentence. Composition in the primary grades should be 
introductory to the scientific study of the sentence. The principles of 
construction should here be taught by exercises, without being formally 
stated. In the grammar grades, the composition work should illus- 
trate and supplement the work of the grammar class. 

In connection with these lessons in criticism many of the principles 
of construction usually relegated to the province of formal rhetoric 
may be divested of their formalities and worked into the practice of 
the young pupil before his habits of thought and expression are formed 
beyond the reach of rhetorical training. 

We must emphasize our conviction, already suggested, that the work 
of the composition class is, primarily, to find proper expression for 
thought, not to furnish thought for expression. To employ the brief 
daily or weekly composition period roaming over the fields of universal 
knowledge in search of material to be worked into thought and expres- 
sion is extremely bad economy. The knowledge gathered from the 
pupil's daily observation and experience, from his general reading, 
from his lessons in geography, history, etc., will furnish abundant 
matter for language work. It is important, however, that the material 
for composition should have educational value, that it should be worth 
consideration in itself. The thought will, of course, be subjected to 
the closest scrutiny in determining its proper order and form of ex- 
pression. 

To accomplish any definite results with a class of twenty or thirty, 
in a short period of recitation, it is essential that the attention of all be 
concentrated on some one very limited object. The principle or form 
of construction to be considered should be presented from its most 
practical side, and the illustrations — selected and original — should be 
brief and to the point. 



Methods of Teaching Composition. 



General directions for the preparation of original compositions, or 
essays, should be given in the composition class, but each pupil must 
necessarily choose his own treatment and his own expression. In 
examining these essays, the teacher will find as many ways of handling 
the same subject as there are pupils, and will be led over a wide range 
in his grammatical and rhetorical criticisms. The correction of such 
essays can therefore profitably be made a class exercise only so far as 
it affords opportunity for reviewing the principles passed over in the 
grammar class or the composition class. For the observance of all 
such principles, the writer should always be held strictly responsible. 

Preparatory to the writing of an essay, the analysis of the theme, or 
the preparation of a framework for the composition, should receive 
careful attention. Various exercises may be devised by which such 
analysis can be made a simple and natural process, even for beginners. 
Short, easy selections may be taken from the readers or other books, and, 
after a careful consideration of the meaning, the pupil may be required 
to state in two or three words what each paragraph is about. Facts 
relating to some one subject may be thrown out of their proper order 
and presented for grouping into paragraphs with proper headings. The 
order of these different headings — growing out of their relations to each 
other and to the whole — should be thoroughly discussed. All such 
exercises should be very short and simple at the beginning, and should 
be carefully graded up till the pupil can easily construct a framework 
for any discourse that he can read intelligently. The benefit of such 
work can hardly be overestimated. In addition to its direct bearing on 
the preparation of original compositions, it trains the pupil to habits 
of close, thoughtful reading, and enables him to seize and retain the 
salient points of what he reads. 

The loose, aimless composition-writing usually practiced in school is 
productive of little good. The assigning of topics beyond the writer's 
ability either tempts to deception and the dishonest appropriation of the 
thoughts and the language of another, or results in the unmethodical 
accumulation of a sufficient number of common-place remarks to fill the 
required space. Multitudes of subjects suitable for original compo- 



2Q Methods of Teaching Composition. 



sition work may be found on every hand. For exercises in descriptive 
composition the pupil may picture his school, his home, his town, 
places that he has visited, places that he has not visited — as he im- 
agines them to be, — views obtained from different positions, sunrises, 
sunsets, storms, etc., etc. For exercises in narration he may relate 
the events of the preceding day in school, of a day at home, a day in 
town, a day in the country, of a short vacation, of an excursion, of 
a journey, of the different remarkable events in his own experience, 
etc., etc. He may write about cows, horses, sheep, birds, insects, 
flowers, trees, rivers, mountains, etc. The easiest of these subjects will 
always afford opportunity for the exercise of any amount of skill. For 
instance, in the preparation of the simplest narrative the pupi] r ,may be 
taught to distinguish between the method of recording events in the 
order of time and the method of grouping related events. 

Any person that gives a moment's thought to the matter will see 
how unnecessary, how absurd, it would be to attempt to furnish a text- 
book on English grammar and composition with material for a series 
of original essays. We claim, however, to give in the following pages 
a complete, consecutive, and carefully graded series of lessons in com- 
position-writing. It will be seen on examination that we do not base 
this claim on a few pages headed "composition," scattered up and 
down through the book without relation to the context. 

The attention of those who cannot give our book a thorough exami- 
nation is invited to such exercises and suggestions as are found on 
pages 59, 60, 66, 67, 72-75, 144-150. 



Alphabetical Index. 



PAGES 

Abbreviations 32, 319-324 

Absolute Phrase 192, 244, 245 

Adjective, The 53, 206 

Classes ... .53, 156, 157 

" Comparison... 64,65, 

198-205 

" Construction. . 56-58, 

65, 157-159, 202-205 

Clause.... ... 117-123, 

249, 250 

Adjective or Adverb? 93, 94, 

241, 242 

Adverb, The 62, 206, 

207, 240, 252 

Classes 62, 160, 161 

Comparison .... 64, 65, 

198-201 

Construction... 62,63, 

65, 161, 162, 202-205 

Clause, 123-127, 251-254 

Agreement 24-26, 

42-46, 82-84, 204, 225-228 

Analysis, Sentence 23 

Analysis, Additional Se- 
lections 280-285 

Antecedent 152 

Apostrophe 36, 45, 

97, 99, 100, 173, 
187-191, 266, 267 



PAGES 

Arrangement.. .57, 58, 72-74, 84, 
113-115, 120, 126, 131-133, 
155, 159, 161, 162, 184, 226 

Articles 157, 158 

As.... 238, 242, 

243, 252, 253, 293, 294 

Assert 15^16, 41, 91, 94, 101, 

103, 107, 211, 212, 248 

Both and, etc. ...... 77 

Bad or badly f 93 

Brackets 267 

But 137, 248, 292, 293 

Capital Letters, Rules.. . . 19, 32, 
59, 135, 261 

Case 95-100, 127, 185-193 

Clause, The 117, 130 

" Classes 117, 130 

Adjectives 117-123, 

249, 250, 293 

"■ Adverb 123-127, 

251-254, 293, 294 
' < Noun. 128-136, 254-256, 294 

" Independent 137-141 

" Complex and Com- 
pound 256-258 

Colon, Eules 136, 265 

Comma, Rules .73, 74, 80-82, 

87, 100, 105, 120, 126, 
131, 135, 139, 262 



12 



Alphabetical Index. 



PAGES 

Comparison 64, 65, 198-205 

Complement, The 89 

Object 89,90, 

105, 128, 129, 255 

Attribute.. 90,91, 

93, 94, 104, 128, 

129, 242, 244, 255 

Objective. 237, 238, 

244, 245, 247 

Composition. 20, 21, 40, 67, 75, 115, 

128, 144-150 

Additional 

Subjects.. 324-328 

Conjugation 213-217, 301-312 

Conjunction, The 78, 233 

Classes.. 163, 293, 294 

" Construction. 164, 165 

List......... 293, 294 

Connectives 293, 294 

Consonants. 315, 317, 318 

Contraction of Clauses. . 117, 121, 

123, 126, 127, 128, 133, 140, 141, 

254, 255, 259-261 

Contraction of "Words ... 45, 46 

Dash. 34, 36, 132, 133, 243, 265, 266 

Declension 294, 297 

Diacritical Marks 315-318 

Diagram, The 52 

Done, did, etc 108 

Each other 242, 297 

Either 77, 297 

Energy 269, 273,274 

Exclamation Point.. 19, 86,87, 262 

Factitive Object 237 

For — introductory 248 

Grammar, English 142 



PAGES 

Gender 176-181 

Hand in hand 241 

Homonyms 50, 68, 75 

Hyphen 267 

Imagery 269, 274, 276 

In or into f 166 

Independent Elements. . 85-87, 

243, 245, 246, 249 

Infinitives 103-105, 106, 107, 212, 

215, 246-249, 260, 307 

without^.... 247 

Intended to have called . . . 221 

Interjection, The 85, 86, 233 

Interrogation Point 19, 134, 136, 262 
Irregular Verbs... 107-112, 297-301 

Is being built 311 

It 105, 130, 131, 132, 179, 180 

" It is me," etc. ... 95-97, 185, 186 

It is to you that, etc 250 

Letters, Sounds of 315-318 

Letter- Writing.. 34-40, 48, 286-291 

Like 246 

Many a 246 

Metaphor 269, 274-276 

Metonymy 269, 270, 275 

Mine, thine, etc 295 

Modifications of Parts of 

Speech 169 

Mode 211-224 

Modifier, A 51 

Names, Writing. ..28-30, 32, 34-39 

Neither 77, 297 

Noun, The 27-30,32, 197 

" Classes 27-30, 151 

" Number 24-26, 

42, 43, 169-176 



Alphabetical Index. 



13 



PAGES 

Noun, Gender 176-181 

" Person 181, 182 

" Case 97-100, 185-191 

" Declension 294 

" as Adjective 97-100, 

242, 243 
" as Adverb . . . .238-240, 243 
" Clause .... 128-136, 254-256 

Number 24-26, 

42-46, 82, 84, 169-176, 204, 

213-217, 225-228 

Indirect (or dative) Object 210, 

234, 238-240 

One another 297 

Orthography 315-318 

Ought 219, 222 

Paragraph, The 40, 146-149 

Parenthesis, Marks. . .132, 133, 266 
Parenthetical Expressions 132, 133, 

243 
Parsing. . 63, 87, 196, 205, 230, 231 

Participles 101-103, 

105-111, 212, 215, 216, 217, 
244-246, 247, 259, 260 

Period 19, 3% 261 

Person. .181-184, 213-217, 225-228 

Personification 66, 180, 181 

Perspicuity 268, 270-273 

Phrase, The 69, 72-74, 

239-241, 243-248, 256 

Pleonasm 154, 243 

Predicate, The.21, 22, 90, 91, 101,103 

" Compound 76, 77 

Modified 60,61 

Preposition, The 70, 71, 

166, 167, 233 



PAGES 

Preposition, List 292 

Past Tense or Past Parti- 
ciple ? 107-111 

Proof-Marks 47-49, 

58, 65, 88, 111 

Pronoun, The 31, 32, 198 

Classes 31, 117, 152 

" " Construc- 

tion... 120, 121, 153-156 
Number, Gen- 
der, Person — 
Construction. 179-181, 
183, 184 
" Case-Forms — 

Construction 95-97, 
99, 127, 191-193 
Declension.... 295-297 
Question, Direct and In- 
direct 134-136 

Quotation, Direct and In- 
direct 134-136 

Quotation Marks 134, 135, 267 

Schemes, Review 143,197, 

198, 206, 232, 233 

Semicolon, Rules 139, 264 

Sentence, The 18, 143 

" Classes — Mean- 
ing 16-20 

" Classes— Form.. 138 

Simple.. 15-115, 237-249 

Complex 117-136, 

249-261 

< ' Compound 137-141, 

257-261 

Simile 269,275 

Spelling, Rules 318 



u 



Alphabetical Index. 



PAGES 

Statements Combined... 122, 123, 
144-146 

Style, Qualities 268-276 

Subject, The 21, 22 

" Compound 76, 77 

Modified 50-52 

Subject or Complement ?. . . . 241 

Subjunctive Mode 136, 219 

221, 306 

Syntax, Rules 234, 235 

Tense 107-112, 211-224 

Than 253 

That 53, 118, 

129, 249, 250, 254, 293, 294 

The- --the 253 

The one the other. . . . 156 

There 85 

This that 156 

To with Infinitive 247, 307 

Verb, The 40, 41, 232 

" Classes 107, 159, 160 

" Voice 207-210, 310,311 



PAGES 

Verb, Mode 211-224 

" Tense 107-112, 211-224 

" Number and Per- 
son 24-26, 

42-46, 82-84, 213-217, 225-228 

" Conjugation " 213-217, 

301, 212 
" Compound Forms, 

Analysis 312, 313 

" Tense Forms, Mean- 
ing 313-315 

Versification 276-280 

Voice 207-210, 310, 311 

Vowels 315-317 

Was laughed at . , 209 

Was lost sight of 210 

What. .119, 152, 154, 250, 293, 294 

When 124, 252 

Where 119, 124, 250 

Will, would ; shall, should, 222-224 

Word, A 15 

Yes, no 161 , 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON I. 

WORDS GROUPED. 



Introductory Talk. — We see, hear, feel, smell, and taste, and so the 
things about us are every day making pictures or impressions on the 
mind. The mind holds these pictures, and so becomes a great store- 
house of ideas. 

Whenever any word, as house, is spoken or written, it calls up in the 
mind one of these pictures, or ideas ; so we say that a word is the 
sign of an idea. 

These ideas in our minds are constantly getting together into 
groups ; so, of course, words are used in groups. This is about the 
same as saying that we think and then express our thoughts in 
sentences. 

Not every group of words, however, is a sentence. Grass grows is a 
sentence, because it shows that we have "made up our minds," or 
come to a conclusion. Growing is asserted of grass, and the sense 
is complete. 

Grass growing is not a sentence, for the growing is not asserted. 
Although two ideas are associated, no conclusion is reached. 

The two words arranged thus, — grows grass, do not show that the 
ideas, are even associated. 

You see that to make words express our thoughts we must look to 
their form and their arrangement. 



16 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



DIRECTION.— Tell which of the following sets of words make com- 
plete sense— are sentences, which express associated ideas without 
asserting, and which express ideas not connected,— and explain :— 



1. Glass melts. 

2. Mirrors reflect. 

3. Water evaporates. 

4. Clouds floating. 

5. Sparkles dew. 

6. Dew sparkles. 

7. Floating clouds. 

8. Thunder reverberates. 

9. Voices are heard. 
10. Voices heard. 



11. Music charms. 

12. Music charming. 

13. Charming music. 

14. Odors are diffused. 

15. Cologne was imported. 

16. Pain must be endured. 

17. Pure air is invigorating. 

18. Sugar dissolves. 

19. Pepper is pungent. 

20. Are diffused odors. 



Observation Exercises. — Find in the exercises above a word that 
stands for an idea we get mainly by seeing ; one by hearing ; one by 
-feeling ; one by smelling ; one by tasting. 



LESSON II. 

KINDS OF SENTENCES-MEANING. 
DIRECTION.— Copy the following sentences :— 




Kinds of Sentences— Meaning. ]^ 



Observation Exercises. — Notice that each of the sentences above 
begins with a capital letter. Which of these sentences simply states 
a fact ? Which denies something ? Which expresses a command ? 
Notice the mark, or point, at the end of each of these. It is called a 
period. Point out the sentence that expresses a question. This is 
followed by an interrogation point. Point out the sentence that 
expresses strong feeling. This is followed by an exclamation point. 

Finding Names. — In the first sentence above we affirm the falling ; 
in the second we deny the falling ; in both we tell, or declare, some- 
thing. 

In the third sentence we do not affirm or deny the falling, but ask 
some one else to affirm or to deny it. 

In the fourth sentence we command some one to do something. 
Listen tells what is to be done, but the word {you) representing the 
one commanded is not expressed. 

In the fifth sentence we express an exclamation, showing that some- 
thing about the falling of the rain has awakened in us strong feeling — 
perhaps surprise, wonder, or astonishment. 

These sentences that affirm or deny (declare) something may be 
called Declarative. As Interrogative means denoting a question, 
and Imperative means expressing a command, and Exclamatory 
means expressing exclamation, these three words will fittingly apply to 
the other kinds of sentences. 

DIRECTION.— Copy the following- sentences; study what is said 
above, explain as fully as you can what each sentence expresses, and 
tell what each is called :— 

6. The wind roars. 

7. The wind does not roar. 

8. Does the wind roar ? 

9. Do not roar. 

10. How the wind roars ! 

11. What soft, beautiful colors are seen in a winter landscape ! 

12. Does the moon revolve around the earth ? 

13. Aim at the stars. 



|8 The Sentence and the Parts of SpeeeH 



LESSON III. 

KINDS OF SENTENCES-MEANING. 
DEFINITIONS. 
A Sentence is a group of words expressing a thought. 
A Declarative Sentence is one that affirms or denies. 
An Interrogative Sentence is one that expresses a question. 
An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses a command 
or an entreaty. 

An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses sudden 
thought or strong feeling. 

DIRECTION.— CovY the following" sentences, noting- all capital 
letters and " points " ; tell what kind of sentence each is, and why :— 

1. What a chorus of insect voices may be heard in June ! 

2. How many difficulties were conquered by the stern old Puritans ! 
8. Did the Puritans land at Plymouth ? 

4. Was Louisiana once owned by the French ? 

5. Tell about William Penn's treatment of the Indians. 

niMJSCTIOK.—'M.SLke two sentences of your own to illustrate each 
of the definitions above. 



LESSON IV. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND OBSERVATION EXERCISES. 

Name the four kinds of sentences. What two things may a declara- 
tive sentence do ? Illustrate. What does an interrogative sentence 
express ? — an imperative ? — an exclamatory ? 

Which of the four kinds of sentences is not found among the ex- 
amples of the preceding Lesson ? What would the first of these sen- 
tences become by dropping what f — the second by dropping how ? — 
the third by putting did after Puritans f — the fourth by putting was 
after Louisiana ? 



Summing Up— Rules. 29 



Examine the five sentences at the beginning, and the eight at the end, 
of Lesson II., and the five in Lesson III., and then tell what mark fol- 
lows the declarative sentences ; what the interrogative ; what the im- 
perative ; what the exclamatory. What kind of letter is found at the 
beginning of each sentence ? 

The little bird sings. 
Does the little bird sing ? 
Sing, little bird. 
How the little bird sings I 

Tell the class of each of the four preceding sentences. Explain the 
changes in meaning. Make similar changes in each of the following : — 

Time flies swiftly. 

The mountains lift up their heads. 



LESSON V. 

SUMMING UP-RULES. 

CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— The first word of every sentence 
should begin with a capital letter. 

Punctuation— Rules. 

PERIOD.— A declarative or an imperative sentence should be 
followed by the period. 

INTERROGATION POINT.— An interrogative sentence should 
be followed by the interrogation point. 

EXCLAMATION POINT.— An exclamatory expression should be 
followed by the exclamation point. 

Remark. — The last rule applies to all exclamatory expressions^ 
whether sentences or not ; as, Oh ! Hurrah ! The dear child ! 



20 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Remark.— A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence 
becomes exclamatory when expressed mainly to give vent to some feel- 
ing ; as, It is impossible I Can it be true ! Talk of honesty after this ! 

DIRECTION.— Observing* the Rules above, arrange the following- 
groups of words so as to illustrate the different kinds of sentences :— 

Hints.— An interrogative and an exclamatory sentence can be made 
from the first ; and, by dropping one word, a declarative sentence can 
also be formed. The same is true of the second. 

1. does, on the top, the wind, blow, how, of Mt. Washington. 

* 2. by Capt. John Smith, what, told, stories, strange, were. 
3. carefully, of your sentences, to the punctuation, attend. 

DIRECTION .— "Write a declarative sentence containing* one or 
more short exclamatory expressions. "Write an interrogative sen- 
tence and an imperative sentence, and then make them exclamatory. 

Composition. 

To the Teacher.— We recommend the teacher to continue this practical work. 
Examples of the different kinds of sentences may be selected from books or papers 
and dictated to the pupils. The slates may be exchanged, and the sentences read and 
corrected by the pupils, aided by the teacher. Each sentence may be put on the 
board when it is corrected. All mistakes in spelling, capitals, punctuation, etc. 
should be corrected, reasons being given only where previous study has opened 
the way. 

In reading from the slates pupils should mention capitals and punctuation marks 
as they are met. The meaning and force of each sentence should be explained. 

— 

LESSON VI. 

THE TWO PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

To the Teacher.— Let the pupils read the "Talk" in Lesspn I., then let thena 
discuss and illustrate fully the points there presented. 

Introduction. — You learned in Lesson I. that we get ideas of the 

* The punctuation alone may sometimes distinguish one kind of sentence from an- 
other. 



Tine Two Parts of a Sentence. 21 



world about us through our five senses, that words stand for these 
ideas, that our minds are ever busy putting these ideas into groups, or 
forming thoughts, and that we use groups of words called sentences to 
express our thoughts. 

In a thought we think something about something ; in expressing 
our thought we name the thing thought about, and then tell 
what is thought about this thing. 

Snow melts expresses a thought, and is therefore a sentence. Snow 
names the thing thought about, and melts tells what is thought about 
the snow. 



DIRECTION.— Explain the following" expressions according- to the 
instructions above :— 

1. Winter retires. 5. Brooks babble. 

2. Frogs croak. 6. Sap ascends. 

3. Insects buzz. 7. Showers descend. 

4. Birds twitter. 8. Blossoms swell. 

9. Spring advances. 

Composition. 
To the Teacher. — Let the pupils see that these nine sentences make a fragment- 
ary composition on " The Opening of Spring." The pupils may add similar state- 
ments, and then weave them all into a composition. This, of course, would make a 
separate lesson. 

Naming the Parts. — It will now be convenient to know these two 
parts of the sentence by name. 

As you know what is meant when we speak of the subject of a com- 
position, you will easily learn to call that part of the sentence which 
names the thing thought about and talked about the Subject of the 
sentence. 

To find a good name for the other part of the sentence is not so easy. 
We might call it the saying part or the telling part; but, as these terms 
are rather awkward, and we prefer a single name, we cannot do better 
than to take the more learned word Predicate, which means what is 
said or asserted. 



22 Tlie Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON VI I. 

REVIEW. 



Questions and Exercises. — How do we get ideas of things about 
us ? What do we use to stand for these ideas ? Are our ideas usually 
single, or in groups ? 

Think something about something and express your thought in two 
words. What is your expression called ? What does your first word 
do ? What is it called ? What does the second word do ? What is 
it called ? Express the same two ideas without expressing a thought. 
Form five other thoughts and treat them in the same way. 

Can you really put a thought on paper ? Can you put a sentence on 
paper ? Is a sentence a thought, or the expression of a thought ? Is 
a word .an idea, or the sign of an idea ? Is the " subject " the thing 
thought about, or does it name the thing thought about ? 

Point out all the sentences found among the exercises in Lesson I., 
and tell why they are sentences. Name and explain the two parts of 
each. 

Define and illustrate the different kinds of sentences. 



LESSON VIII. 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE-ANALYSIS. 

DEFINITIONS. 

The Subject of a Sentence names that of which something is 
thought. 
The Predicate of a Sentence tells what is thought. 

Explanation. — As analyze means to separate into parts, we shall find 
it convenient to use different forms of this word in speaking of the 
separation of sentences into parts. 



Subject and. Predicate— Analysis. 23 



The Analysis of a Sentence is the separation of it into its 
parts. 

DIRECTION — Analyze the following sentences :— 

Example. — Rabbits burrow expresses a thought, and is therefore a 
sentence. It affirms something, and is therefore declarative. Rabbits 
names the things thought about, and is therefore the subject. Bur- 
row tells what is thought about the rabbits * — what the rabbits do, — 
and is therefore the predicate. 

1. Tides ebb. 4. Blood circulates. 

2. Liquids flow. 5. Bread nourishes. 

3. Hearts throb. 6. Exercise strengthens. 

DIRECTION.— Analyze the following sentences :— 

Example.— Banners wave is a sentence, because it expresses a 
thought. It affirms something, and is therefore declarative. Banners 
is the subject, because it names that of which something is thought ; 
wave is the predicate, because it tells what is thought. 

To the Teacher.— The teacher is advised to drop this full formal analysis when 
the pupil is familiar with the definitions. The work must not become mechanical. 

7. Swallows migrate. 10. Punctuality pays. 

8. Heat radiates. 11. Industry enriches. 

9. Victoria reigns. 12. Nero fiddled. 

Review Questions and Exercises. 

What rule for capitals have you learned ? What rules for punctu- 
ation ? 

When we say hens sitting, do we show that we have "made up ouf 
minds " to anything, or come to any conclusion ? Does sitting assert 

* Not what is thought about the subject, or the word rabbits. Notice that a word 
mentioned merely as a word is printed in italics. Italics are also used to make 
words prominent. 



24 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



anything ? Is hens sitting a sentence ? Is sits hen a sentence ? Give 
reasons for the last two answers. What is a sentence ? How many 
parts must every sentence have ? What is a subject ? — a predicate ? 
— the analysis of a sentence ? All the sentences in I^esson VIII. are 
of what kind ? 



LESSON IX. 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE-CONSTRUCTION. 

To the Teacher. — The exercises below afford opportunity for stimulating obser- 
vation and thought. In addition to the written exercises pupils will be interested in 
naming orally the many different things that float, sink, climb, etc., and in telling 
the many things that the objects named in the second exercise may do. 



DIM ECTION.— Construct sentences by supplying a subject to each 
of the following* predicates :— 



1. floats. 5. 

2. sinks. 6. 

3. explodes. 7. 

4. evaporates. 8. 



leap. 


9 


sing. 


10. 


terrify. 


11. 


expand. 


12. 



• decay, 
climb, 
crawl, 
creep. 



DIMJECTIOK.— Construct sentences by supplying a predicate to 



each of the following subjects :- 



r 



13. Seeds - 

14. Water - 

15. Plants 

16. Books - 



C 



17. Steam - 

18. Wind — 

19. Rogues - 

20. Indians - 



21. Insects — 

22. Vapor — 

23. Light — 

24. Yankees 



Agreement of Forms. 

Observation Exercises. — How do the words seed and seeds differ in 
meaning ? How is this difference shown ? Which of the other sub- 
jects given above mean more than one ? Which mean but one ? 
What letter marks the difference ? 



Analysis and. Construction. 25 



Which of the twelve predicates above end in s ? Which do not ? 
Notice that adding s to a predicate does not change its meaning. 

Do the subjects that you have put before the first four of these pred- 
icates mean one, or more than one ? Do the other subjects mean one, 
or more than one ? Can a subject meaning more than one be put be- 
fore any one of the first four predicates ? Can a subject that means 
but one be put before any of the other eight predicates ? * Examine 
every case carefully before you decide these questions. 

Would it sound right to say The boys plays f In what two ways 
may this be made right ? 

Try to tell in a few words what conclusions you reach from all these 
experiments. 



LESSON X. 

ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

A predicate may consist of two, three, or four words 

used together like a single word. 

DIRECTION. — Analyze the following- sentences, and draw a 
straight line under each, subject and a waving- line under each predi- 
cate, thus :— 

Caesar could have been crowned. 

1. Columbus was imprisoned. 5. Eclipses have been foretold. 

2. Air can be weighed. 6. Money is circulated. 

3. Time is flying. 7. Grammarians will differ. 

4. Tempests are raging. 8. Sodom might have been spared. 

DIRECTION.— Rewrite the declarative sentences above and make 
them interrogative. Tell how the change is made in each case. 

Example. — Could Caesar have been crowned? 



* The subjects /and you must be excepted. 
2 



2() The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



DIBECTIOX.— Write subjects for the following" predicates :— 

1. is imported. 7. are progressing. 

2. is reflected. 8. are drooping. 

3. was destroyed. 9. were exported. 

4. was conquered. 10. were crowned. 

5. has been invented. 11. have disappeared. 

6. has appeared. 12. — have been improving. 

Explanation. — Plural means expressing more than one, and 
singular means expressing only one. We shall now speak of plural 
subjects and singular subjects, and thus avoid " round about" expres- 
sions. 

Observation Exercises. — Which of the subjects that you have 
found for the predicates above are plural ? Which are singular ? 
Change your plural subjects to singular subjects, and see what changes 
must be made in the predicates. Change your singular subjects to 
plural subjects, and see what takes place in the predicates. What word 
of each predicate changes ? 

From these experiments what do you conclude about the use of 

is, was, has ; are, were, have ? 

To the Teacher. — The first and most important step to a scientific knowledge of 
the sentence is gained when the pupil can determine without hesitation the simple 
subject and the simple predicate of any ordinary sentence. This knowledge is of 
first importance also in the construction of sentences. The teacher is therefore 
advised to make selections from readers or other books, for drill in picking out sub- 
jects and predicates. 



LESSON XI. 

CLASSES OF WORDS-NOUNS. 

Seeing Resemblances— Making- Classes. 

Introductory. — Could you count all the insects that are to be found 
in summer in a single meadow ? In studying botany could you exam- 
ine every separate plant in a single field ? 



Classes of Words— Nouns. 27 



Describe as clearly as you can an insect that can fly ; a garden 
plant good for food ; a flowering plant that grows in the meadow. 

Did you have in your mind any one particular insect or plant ? Have 
you in each case described one alone, or many millions ? How does it 
become possible to learn something of the greater part of 'the animals 
and plants on the globe ? 

You see how important it is to group things that are alike, into 
classes. Unless we learn to compare things to find out their resem- 
blances and differences, we must remain ignorant. 

In studying grammar we are not obliged to examine every one of the 
hundred thousand or more words in our language. By studying sen- 
tences we discover that many words are alike in naming things that we 
can think about and talk about. We put all these names together 
and make one class, which grammarians call Nouns (noun means 
name). 

We finally discover that words have eight separate uses in the sen- 
tence ; so we make eight classes of words, or, as grammarians say, 
" eight parts of speech." 



The chief office of the noun is that of subject. 

Class Names and Individual Names. 

city man ship dog 

Chicago Columbus Mayflower Tray 

Observation Exercises. — Are city and Chicago both names ? What 
difference can you discover in meaning ? What in the first letter ? 
Answer similar questions regarding the two words in each of the other 
groups. 

What advantage can you see in using two names for the same thing ; 
as, "the ship Mayflower," "the dog Tray" f Which of the eight 
names grouped above would you call class names ? Which would 
you call individual names ? 



2g The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Do we give individual names to wild animals ? — to insects ? — to 
trees ?-^to pet animals ? — to persons ? Why do we give individual 
names to some things and not to others ? 

What are all names called in grammar ? 



LESSON XI I. 

HOW TO WRITE NAMES— ABBREVIATIONS.* 

DIRECTION.— Copy the following: carefully, and learn what you 
san about the forms of names :— 

Texas, state, river, Red River, city, Albany, New Orleans, Kansas 
City, statesman, Thomas Jefferson, Thos. Jefferson, author, 
Charles Dickens, Chas. Dickens, writer, George William Cur- 
tis, Geo. Wm. Curtis, Geo. W. Curtis, poet, John Greenleaf 
Whittier, John G. Whittier, J. G. Whittier, gulf, sea, Gulf of 
Mexico, Caribbean Sea, lake, Lake Erie, general, General 
Robert Edmund Lee, Gen. Robt. E. Lee, doctor, Doctor 
Valentine Mott, Dr. V. Mott, professor, Prof. Goldwin Smith. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote " The Song of Hiawatha." 

John Bunyan wrote " The Pilgrim's Progress." 

The subject for composition was " A Day in the Woods." 

Observation Exercises. — Which of the names just written are 
class names ? Which are individual names ? In writing these 
names what do you discover as to the use of capitals ? 

Mention an individual name made up of two names ; one made of 
three names ; one made of four names. How many capitals do you 
find in each of the names just mentioned ? 

Mention seven words that are written without capitals as class 
names, and again with capitals as parts of individual names. 

Mention a word that is shortened, or abbreviated, by omitting all but 
the first, or initial, letter. Mention a shortened form, or abbrevia- 

* For list of abbreviations, see p. 319 



How to ^7Vrite Names. 29 



tion, containing two letters ; one containing three letters ; one con- 
taining four letters. 

What new use of the period have you discovered in this exercise ? 

What three words in the exercise above are used together as the title 
of a book ? What four as the title of a poem ? What five as the sub- 
ject of a school composition ? Each of these groups may be regarded 
as a kind of individual name. Besides the first word what words begin 
with capitals in each of these three groups ? Notice that these are the 
principal words. 

Christian Names, Surnames, and Abbreviations. 

Observation Exercises. — John Brown, William Henry Brown, and 
Mary Ann Brown have the same father and mother. Mention the 
family name. Mention tho names given to them by their parents or 
by some friend. 

Family names are often called surnames, and given names are 
often called Christian names. 

Write your own name in two or more ways, and put a period at the 
end. Write the names of five of your acquaintances, using initials 
and other abbreviations in some. Look out for the period after each 
abbreviation, and for the capitals. 



LESSON XIII. 

HOW TO WRITE NAMES— CONTINUED. 

DIItE CTION.— Copy the following" sentences, noting- carefully capi 
tals and punctuation marks :— 



1. The city of Chicago is on Lake Michigan. 

2. The steamer City of Chicago sails from Jersey City. 

3. The island of Cuba is under Spanish rule. 

4. The Isle of Man is in the Irish Sea. 

5. The Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone is an English statesman. 



~~] 



30 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



6. The subject for composition was " The View from my Window." 

7. In the evening Aunt Mary entertained my cousin and me with 
stories of Uncle Remus. 

8. Miss Evans — afterward Mrs. Lewes — was the author of " The 
Mill on the Floss." 

9. We may call the Supreme Being our Heavenly Father. 

10. The Old Testament points to the coming of a Messiah. 

11. George I., George IT., George III., George IV., and William IY. 
preceded Victoria. 

Observation Exercises. — Is Chicago, or city of Chicago the individ- 
ual name of the place mentioned in (1)? Is Chicago, or City of Chi- 
cago the name of the steamer mentioned in (2)? Is the town mentioned 
in (2) named Jersey, or Jersey City f Is the body of water mentioned 
in (1) known as Michigan, or Lake Michigan f What is the name of 
the island mentioned in (3) ? — in (4) ? Is Irish, or Irish Sea the name 
of the body of water mentioned in (4) ? 

Notice that Spanish, in (3), and English, in (5), are not names, or 
nouns. They begin with capitals, because they are derived from the 
individual names Spain and England. 

What names in (7) usually denote relationship ? Notice that such 
words as uncle, captain, professor, etc. do not necessarily begin with 
capitals unless prefixed to individual names. 

What group of words in (6) is treated as an individual name ? What 
in (8)? Which words of these groups are regarded as the most im- 
portant ? 

In (8) do you find a period after Miss ? — after Mrs. ? 

Miss is not an abbreviation. 

What words in (9) and (10) are used as names of the Deity ? What is 
Old Testament the particular name of ? 

What do you discover in the names found in (11)? 

To the Teacher.— We suggest that the pupils be allowed to bring in for class 
exercises lists of geographical and biographical names, titles of books, etc., with 
euch valuable information as may easily be gathered concerning the things named 
Various slate and blackboard exercises may easily be devised. 



Pronouns. 3 J 

LESSO N XIV. 

PRONOUNS. 

Observation Exercises. — (a) I shall be obliged to you if you will 
give me your name. 

In the preceding sentence how often does the speaker mention him' 
self ? — the one spoken to ? Does he use the class name of either ? — the 
individual name ? Give the speaker a name, use it in place of I and 
me, and see whether the stranger addressed would know that his name 
was wanted by the speaker himself. Why did the speaker not use an 
individual name in place of you and your f 

You see how necessary it is to have certain words that will always 
stand for the speaker, and others that will always stand for the one 
spoken to. 

Read the sentence above, using individual names for the speaker and 
the hearer, and see how you like the sound. What additional advan- 
tage, then, can you discover in the use of such words as J and you f 

Make sentences using he, his, him, she, her, it, its, they, their, them, 
and see what advantage you can discover in their use. 

(b) Who went ? (c) What was done ? 

What kind of sentences are (b) and (c) ? Mention the subject of 
each. Why did the questioner use who and what instead of names ? 
Make sentences using who, which, and what so that they will stand for 
unknown names and at the same time ask for these names. Remem- 
ber the interrogation point. 

Words used for names are called Pronouns {pro means for, and 
noun means name). They form a separate class, or part of speech. 

Those pronouns whose special work is to point out the speaker, the 
hearer, or the one spoken of are called Personal Pronouns. Those 
that ask for a name ^re called Interrogative Pronouns. 

(d) Again, my dear friend ! I must beg your help. 

Mention two letters in the preceding sentence each of which is an 
entire word. 

These words must always be written with capitals. 



32 The Sentence and. the Parts of SpeeaJx 



f 



LESSON XV. 

SUMMING UP-NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

DEFINITION.— A Noun is the name of anything. 

DEFINITION.— A Pronoun is a word used for a noun. 

CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— Individual names and 
words derived from them should begin with capitals. 

Explanation. — Two or more names forming one individual name 
should each begin with a capital ; as, Kansas City, Richard Henry 
Lee. When words of different kinds (or classes) form an individual 
name, only the first word and the chief words begin with capitals ; as, 
Bay of Biscay, The Old Clock on the Stairs. 

CAPITAL AND PERIOD— RULE.— Abbreviations generally 
begin with capitals and are followed by the period. 

CAPITAL AND PERIOD— RULE.— Numbers in the Roman 
notation are generally written in capitals * and followed by the 
period. 

CAPITALS— RULE.— The words I and O should be written in 
capitals. 

DIRECTION.— Copy the following and show how the Rules above 
are applied:— 

1. On the poet's tombstone I read the words, " rare Ben Jonson." 

2. Philip, Duke of Anjou, a grandson of the French king, Louis 
XIV., was appointed heir to the Spanish throne. 

3. See "The American Cyclopaedia, " Vol. XIII. p. 413. 

DIMUCTION.—Co'py the following and observe the use of capitals :— 

4. The East, the "West, the North, and the South are again united 
and prosperous. 

* Small letters are preferred where numerous references to chapters, etc. are 
made. 



Review. 33 

/ : 

5. The United States is bounded on the east by the Atlantic, on the 
west by the Pacific, on the north by the British Possessions, and on the 
south by Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico. 

6. Our spring begins with March, our summer with June, oui 
autumn, or fall, with September, and our winter with December. 

Observation Exercises. — What words found in both (4) and (5) be- 
gin with capitals in one sentence and with small letters in the other ? 
What difference in meaning can you see to account for this ? How do 
the names of the seasons begin in (6) ? — the months ? Write the names 
of the months and of the days of the week, with their abbreviations, 
beginning each with a capital. (See p. 319.) 



LESSON XVI. 

REVIEW. 

What is a sentence ? — a subject ? — a predicate ? — the analysis of a 
sentence ? 

May a predicate consist of more than one word ? Illustrate. Show 
how a declarative sentence may be made interrogative. 

What is the advantage of grouping things into classes ? How many 
classes of words do grammarians make ? What does the word noun 
mean ? What is the chief office of the noun ? 

Illustrate and explain the difference between a class name and an in- 
dividual name. What do you understand by an initial ? — an abbrevia- 
tion ? — a surname ? — a Christian name ? Illustrate. 

What is the advantage of having such words as I and you ? — as who 
and what f Illustrate. What does the word pronoun mean ? Men- 
tion two kinds of pronouns. 

Define a noun. Define a pronoun. Repeat all the rules you have 
learned for capitals and punctuation. Illustrate. 

How do east, tvest, north, and south begin when they name parts of 

our country ? — when they name directions ? How do the names of the 

seasons begin ? — the names of the months ? — the names of the days 

of the week ? (For answers to the last five questions, see preceding 

Lesson, sentences (4), (5), (6), and Observation Exercises.) 
2- 



u. 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSO N XVI I . 

CAPITALS, ABBREVIATIONS, PUNCTUATION-LETTERS. 

DIRECTION.— Copy the following, and note carefully capitals, 
abbreviations, punctuation, and position :— 



(^£^/cf,/STs: 



J3U4s ,_ 



\/faus£<4/. 




^Zw^cir^^ 



Sdr^Zd^J2U^< 



'^%^^^ 



Capitals, Abbreviations, Punctuation— Letters. 35 



dL^^c^^C 



£^^ 



t-zzs 














& <£a<6£ /Z#£j3tZL*£i 



[ ^^^^i£<^Z^€>^^^^', 




36 



Tlie Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Envelope with Superscription. 






Stamp 


(O^^G^U^<Zy^^^^J^^^ 


^ 


JJ&^/^d^^ 




O^M^/(^ t 


V^ 



Observation Exercises. — These forms show how letters may begin 
and end. The dotted lines stand for the message, or body of the 
letter. 

Each letter is supposed to be written at what place ? — at what time? 
■ — to whom ? To what residence or place of business is each to be sent ? 
The lines denoting the place and the time of writing form the head- 
ing. The name and the directions of the one to whom the letter is 
written form the address. 

Before beginning your message you salute your correspondent. 
Mention the forms of salutation above. You also close your message 
with some polite expression. Mention each complimentary close. 
Lastly you sign your name. Mention each signature. 

Suppose each letter-form to occupy a page, and then carefully de- 
scribe the position of each part. How do you find these parts punctu- 
ated ? Notice two new marks in the first form — the comma (,) and 
the dash ( — ). Where do you find these marks together ? When the 
dash is not used after the salutation, where does the body of the letter 
begin ? Notice the apostrophe in the second form. It stands for 
what omitted figures ? Give reasons for the use of all the capitals 
except those in the salutation and the complimentary close. 



Capitals, etc.— Letters. 



37 



LESSON XVI I I. 

CAPITALS, ETC. -LETTERS. 

DIRECTION.— Copy the following* letters, noting" carefully capitals, 
abbreviations, punctuation, and position of parts :— 






Gw^^^^yU^ 




38 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 











G>^S^ O^ 7 ^^^^: 



'^^^U^l^^^^ 



'SjMTZf- 



-^frrt/ 



Capitals, etc. — Letters. 



39 







''££44^ 



-l£<* 



2^^< 



-Urt^ 





t^. 



^g^/. 



,c£ 



/zz^^; 




v^^^^^ 7 ^^^^ 




5 temp 



Csw?^^ 



'ZtTZSfff. 



4_Q The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Observation Exercises. — Do you find in any salutation or compli- 
mentary close capitals that are not provided for in the general rules ? 
Give rules for the other capitals. Explain the abbreviations found in 
Lessons XVII. and XVIII. (See p. 319.) 

Name the different parts of the letters above and describe their 
position. 

In the last letter what change do you find in the position of the 
-address f In a letter of friendship this is the proper position for the 
address. 

Notice that the body of this letter is divided into parts called para- 
graphs. Remember that a paragraph always begins a new line, with 
a wider margin for the first word. 

Composition— Letters. 

To the Teacher, — We suggest that the pupil be required to write letters to 
illustrate the use of capitals, etc. For instance, an invitation to a friend may be 
accompanied by a description of the route to be taken and of the places or objects of 
interest to be seen on the way. Or the pupil may mention some of the books he 
likes best with brief reasons for his choice. 



LESSON XIX. 

* VERBS. 

Introductory. — Yon hardly need an introduction to the next class of 
words, or part of speech. 

You have learned that every predicate contains a word that asserts, 
and that no sentence can be made without such a word. Examine 
Lessons I. and VI., and then illustrate what we have said about 
asserting words. 

* The participle and the infinitive are classed with the verb as exceptional forms, 
altheugh they lack the power to assert. 



Verbs. 41 

On account of their importance, these words that assert are called 
"Verbs (the words). Verb means word. 

In " trees growing " growing expresses an action, but does not assert. 
In " Trees grow," grow expresses the same action and asserts. 

In " There is a Creator," or " A Creator exists," is and exists assert 
Ireing, or existence. In " The child sleeps, rests, or lies in bed," each 
verb, sleeps, rests, and lies, tells the state, or condition, in which the 
<child is — that is, asserts state of being. 



Nouns and verbs are the chief words of a sentence. 

Exercises. — Read the first paragraph of Lesson X., and put the word 
verb in the place of the word predicate. Mention the predicates of the 
eight sentences given in Lesson X. Each of these predicates may be 
treated as one verb. Give five other verbs each containing two or more 
words. 

Same Words as Nouns and as Verbs. 

(a) Parrots talk. (c) The crowd dispersed. 

(b) The talk ceased. (d) Strange thoughts crowd in. 

Observation Exercises. — What part of speech is talk in (a) above ? 
— la (b) ? What is crowd in (c) ? — in (d) ? Do you look to the form, or 
to the use, of a word to tell its part of speech ? 

DIRECTION.— TJse each of the following: words, first as a subject 
noting and then as a predicate verb or as a part of such verb :— 

1. ride 

2. cut 

3. head 

DEFINITION.— A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or 
state of being. 



4. face 


7. branches 


5. pity 


8. skates 


6. sound 


9. drops 



42 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON XX. 

SUBJECT NOUN AND PREDICATE VERB-AGREEMENT, 

D IRJECTION.— Make twenty-four sentences by combining the fol* 
lowing* nouns and verbs: — 



1. girl, girls 

2. hen, hens 

3. turkey, turkeys 

4. lamb, lambs 

5. tiger, tigers • 

6. cricket, crickets 



Nouns. 



7. torch, torches 

8. coach, coaches 

9. fox, foxes 

10. goose, geese 

11. man, men 

12. ox, oxen 



1. giggle, giggles 

2. cackle, cackles 

3. gobble, gobbles 

4. bleat, bleats 

5. growl, growls 

6. chirrup, chirrups 



Verbs. 

7. flash, flashes 

8. pass, passes 

9. watch, watches 

10. gabble, gabbles 

11. march, marches 

12. bellow, bellows 



Observation Exercises. — Notice what forms of the noun and the 
verb go together, or agree. 

What is the difference in meaning between girl and girls ? How is 
this difference shown ? Which of the words above are made to mean 
more than one by adding s ? Which, by adding es ? Which, by a 
change in the middle ? Which adds en ? 

Notice that giggle and giggles do not differ in meaning ; both forms 
express the same action. 

Which of the verbs above agree in form with plural subjects ? Which, 
with singular subjects ? Which add s when the subject names but 
one ? Which add es ? 

Try to pronounce torch, fox, flash, pass, and add the sound of s 



Subject Noun and Predicate Verb-Agreement. 43 



without making another syllable. Can you now see why es is added to 
these words and pronounced as a separate syllable ? 

As you have learned the great advantage of putting things that are 
alike into classes, you will see the advantage of making the following 
general statements, which cover the cases just examined and hundreds 
of others :— 

RULE. — Nouns are generally made plural by adding s or es. 

Caution.— When a simple form of the verb is used to 
tell what one thing does, s or es is added (unless the subject 
is I or you). 

Observation Exercises. — See which of the verbs above will agree 
with I, — with you, — with he, — with she, — with it, — with they. 

Make some of these verbs tell what one thing did, and then see 
whether the Caution above will work. 

DIRECTION.— Tut a subject before each of the following" verbs :— 

1. — is inhaled. 5. are invented. 

2. was suspended. 6. were organizing. 

3. has succeeded. 7. have been measured. 

4. does contract. 8. do expand. 

Observation Exercises. — Which of the verbs above take plural sub- 
jects ? Which take singular subjects ? Change your singular subjects 
to plural subjects and your plural subjects to singular subjects, and 
make your predicate verbs agree. 

This leads us to the following conclusions : — 

Caution. — Is, was, has, and does are used with singular 
subjects. Are, were, have, and do are used with plural 
subjects. 

Remark. — I can be used with am, was, have, and do. You may 
mean one or more than one, but its verb is always plural. (For the 
forms that agree with thou, see pp. 304-306.) 



44 Tne Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSO N XXI. 

AGREEMENT-CONTINUED. 

When the verb immediately follows its subject, there is 
little danger of disagreement, except that 

was is often used incorrectly for were ; as, 

We was, You was, They was (incorrect) ; 

We were, You were, They were (correct). 

DIRECTION .— Make four sentences, using* for subjects we, you, 
they, and some plural noun, and, for predicates, compound verbs 
introduced by were ; then change these to interrogative sentences, 
marking* them thus :— 

You were chosen. 
Were you chosen ? 

DIRECTION.— "Re-peat aloud the expressions just written and 
others containing you were, etc., till the correct form sounds more 
natural than the incorrect. 

If the subject follows the verb, or if other words come 
between these parts, one not familiar with analysis is liable 
to use the wrong form of the verb ; as, 

After this comes the calisthenic exercises (incorrect) ; 
After this come the calisthenic exercises (correct). 

A cargo of Delaware peaches have arrived (incorrect) ; 

A cargo of Delaware peaches has arrived (correct). 

DIRECTION .—"From the following verbs select the proper words to 
nU the blanks in the sentences below :— 

Remark. — To determine the form of the verb, see how it sounds 
when placed immediately after its subject. 



Agreement— Continued. 45 



IS 



was n has A does 



1 2 3, 4 



are 



were have do 



comes goes thinks writes 

come go think write 

1. With what kind of letter (4) each * of these names begin ? 

2. Under this rule (1) found important exceptions. 

3. The farm, with all the cattle and horses, (2) sold. 

4. With what mark (4) imperative sentences end ? 

5. Every effort of the friends of these measures (3) failed. 

6. There (5) trying times in every man's life. 

7. One of them (6) to Vassar College. 

8. Not one in ten (7) about this. 

9. Neither of you (8) correctly. 

Words are sometimes contracted by dropping one or 
more letters and using the apostrophe ( ' ) to mark the 
omission. 

XUKMCTION.—TJ&e the following: contracted forms :— 

Are nH = are not; does n't = does not; don't = do not; has nH = has 
not ; have n't — have not ; was nH = was not ; were nH = were not ; 
I've = I have ; H is = it is.f 

Remark. — Notice that the Rule for writing abbreviations does not 
apply to contractions. 

Aint, haint, Haint are incorrect. 



* The adjective pronouns each, one, and neither are always singular. 

+ Informal prose composition such contractions should generally he avoided. 



46 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Don't is often used incorrectly for does n't. 

It don't work ; He don't care; Mary don't try (incorrect); 
It does n't work ; He does n't care ; Mary does n't tr J 
(correct). 

Choosing the Right Verb. 

DIHTJCTION.—Coipy the four correct sentences below; determine 
why the verbs in the other sentences are incorrectly used, and how 
they may be correctly used :— 

1. He learnt me to do it (incorrect); 

2. He taught me to do it (correct). 

3. I guess (or calculate) I shall go (incorrect); 

4. I think that I shall go (correct), 

5. We expect that he is dead (incorrect) ; 

6. We believe (or suppose) that he is dead (correct). 

7. Can I see you a moment ? (incorrect) ; 

8. May I see you a moment ? (correct). 

To the Teacher.— Let the pupils repeat aloud short expressions illustrating the 
correct use of was, were, are n't, don't, does n't, have n't, etc. till the ear is accus- 
tomed to the right form. 

With the exception of a few such forms as You was, He aint, don't, etc., violations 
of the rules of concord come from the speaker's inability to recognize instantly his 
simple subject and simple predicate. The necessity of continued practice in point- 
ing out these parts— especially in sentences where they are transposed, or where 
intervening words are liable to confuse — is apparent. 

Much time is wasted in drill on the " conjugations," and in correcting person and 
number forms when the verb immediately follows its subject. 



Review— Proof-Marks. 4^ 



LESSON XXII. 

REVIEW-PROOF-MARKS. 



Remark. — The following are some of the marks used in correcting 
proof-sheets for the printer : — 

J^ De-le = Strike out. 

a Ca-ret = Something to be inserted. 

/ This calls attention to points or letters placed in the 

margin as corrections. 

(T) This calls attention to the period. 

^U Transpose. 

(W Begin a new paragraph with the word preceded by [ . 

(^fcrff No new paragraph. 

\^/ This calls attention to the apostrophe. 

DIItECTION.—TSote the meaning of the marks above, and rewrite 
the following exercises, making the corrections indicated, and giving 
reasons as far as they have been learned :— 




48 



Tine Sentence and. tne Parts of Speech. 



V 



\ 



(L^/0, vz? 





'^Hn^KJC^^^^y . 






'^^^w^' 



Review. 49 



LESSON XXIII. 

REVIEW. 
DIRECTION.— Correct the following-, and give reasons : 







Explanation. — (3) is used to make an inquiry, (4) to express strong 
feeling. In writing, this difference is shown by punctuation ; in speak- 
ing, by emphasis, inflection, and tone of voice. 

Review Questions. — Explain the meaning of the terms heading, 
address, salutation, body of the letter, complimentary close, signature, 
superscription, as used in letter- writing. Describe the position of these 
different parts of a letter. Where should the first word of a paragraph 
be written ? 

"What does the word verb mean ? What is the chief office of a verb ? 
What three things may a verb express ? Illustrate. Define a verb. 
Give several words that may be used either as nouns or as verbs. 

How are nouns usually made plural ? When is s or es added to a 
verb ? Illustrate. Name four words that must agree with singular 
subjects, and four that must agree with plural subjects. 

How are words sometimes contracted ? Name one difference between 
a contraction and an abbreviation. 



50 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON XXIV. 

NOUNS AND VERBS DISTINGUISHED. 

D IRJECT IO N.— Notice that the words in each of the following' pairs 
are pronounced alike. Make sentences in which the first word of 
each pair shall be used as a noun and the second as a verb or part of 
a verb :— 



1. nose knows 

2. brows browse 
8. skull scull 

4. waist waste 

5. side sighed 

6. heel heal 

7. bee be 

8. sea see 

9. bin been 



10. weight wait 

11. meat meet 

12. berry bury 

13. wood would 

14. scene seen 

15. steel steal 

16. way weigh 

17. cell sell 

18. seam seem 



Nouns and Pronouns. 

DIRE€TIO 2V.— Make sentences in which the first word of each 
following 1 pair shall be used as a noun and the second as a pronoun :— 

19. eye I 20. hour our 

21. hymn him 



LESSON XXV. 

MODIFIED SUBJECT. 

Introductory. — The word house will probably call up in your mind 
a dim, uncertain picture. Brick house gives a clearer picture, and 
red brick house a still clearer picture. That large, square, two- 
story red brick house makes the picture very much clearer. 

In expressing our thoughts we generally need more than one word to 
present fully and clearly the thing thought about. 



Modified. Subject. 5^ 



That large, square, two-story red brick house was sold. 

House here names the thing thought about, but it stands only for 
those qualities common to all houses. Additional words are required 
to bring out the particular qualities of the house mentioned. 

What word tells the material of this house ? What, the color ? 
What, the form ? What two words give its size or dimensions ? What 
word points it out as the particular house that you have known before ? 
Does that tell a quality, or does it simply limit the meaning to one par- 
ticular house ? 

You noticed that the picture presented to the mind by the subject 
changed somewhat with every new word added. 

Modify means to change, so these words that change the meaning of 
the subject are called Modifiers. 

That, large, square, two-story, red, and brick are modifiers of 
house. 

That large, square, two-story red brick house is the Modified 
Subject. 



DEFINITION.— A Modifier is a word or group of words joined 
to some part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning. 

The subject with its modifiers is called the Modified 
Subject.* 

Analysis and the Diagram. 

To picture the analysis of a sentence we draw a heavy line and divide 
it thus : — 



The first part represents the subject, the second part the predicate. 

* When we use the word subject without prefixing a qualifying word, it may be 
understood to mean the Simple Subject, or unmodified subject. 



KO The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 




Modifiers are represented by light lines placed below and attached to 
the line standing for the word modified, thus : — 

is falling Look at this picture carefully, and you 

will see that it tells in a very simple way 
the most of what is told in the Oral 
Analysis below. We call this picture a 
Diagram. 

DEFINITION.— A Diagram is a picture of the offices and 
relations of the different parts of a sentence. 

DIRECTION.— Analyze and diagram the following 1 :— 
Example. — The cold November rain is falling. 
Written Analysis. — See diagram above. 

Oral Analysis. — This is a declarative sentence. Rain is the subject, 
and is falling is the predicate. November tells the month of the rain ; 
cold, the feeling or temperature ; and the points out a particular rain ; 
therefore, the, cold, and November are modifiers of rain. 

The cold November rain is the modified subject. 

1. The dark clouds lower. 

2. The dead leaves fall. 

3. A boding silence reigns. 

4. The angry wind is howling. 

5. The strong forest trees are bending. 

6. That dilapidated old wooden building has fallen. 

7. I alone have escaped. 

8. The odious Stamp Act was repealed. 

9. Does every intelligent American citizen vote ? 
10. Were the oppressed Russian serfs liberated ? 

Observation Exercises — Review. — The first seven sentences could 
be used together in making a word picture of what ? Explain the 
capitals in (8), (9), (10). 



Adjectives. 53 

Why is s added to the verb in (3) and not in (1) and (2) ? Show that 
is, are, has, have, was, does, and were are used correctly in the other 
sentences. 



LESSON XXVI. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Introductory. — Words joined to nouns and pronouns to describe or 
limit make a separate class called Adjectives. The word adjective 
means joined to. 

All the modifiers in the preceding Lesson are adjectives. 



D IMECTION.— Join the following: adjectives to nouns ; and then tell 
which, merely point out the thing: or thing's named ; which tell the 
number ; which, the quantity (how much); and which, the quality (what 
kind):— 

The, an, a, one, two, ten, many, 

this, that, much, some, modest, patient, 

faithful, golden, fragile, sparkling. 

DEFINITION. — An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun 
or a pronoun. 

Words denoting quality form a very large and. important 
group. Our knowledge of the things about us is a knowl- 
edge of their qualities. 

To the Teacher. — In the following groups we aim. to give, mainly, words that 
offer some difficulty as to spelling and use, but words that can very profitably be here 
added to the pupil's vocabulary. 

We suggest that the grouping and the application of these qualities be first dis- 
cussed in oral recitation, and that the adjectives be then written with appropriate 
nouns. The pupils can extend the list by adding the more common words. 

Two recitations may profitably be made of this. 



54 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Some Qualities learned directly through the Senses. 
DIRECTION.— Name things that have these qualities :— 





Seeing. 




scarlet 


opaque 


gaudy 


crimson 


dingy 


variegated 


florid 


yivid 


verdant 


sallow 


gorgeous 
Hearing. 


transparent 


audible 


deafening 


monotonous 


stunning 


purling 


discordant 


thundering 


husky 
Smelling. 


melodious 


fragrant 


odorous 


fetid 


balmy 


rancid 
Tasting. 


aromatic 


acid 


delicious 


palatable 


acrid 


insipid 


savory 


pungent 


brackish 
Feeling. 


luscious 


rough 


hard 


tepid 


gritty 


keen 


sultry 



When words ordinarily denoting properties of matter are used to 
indicate qualities pertaining to the mind as, hard hearts, sweet 
temper, pungent remark, they are said to be used figuratively. 
Find other examples if you can. 



LESSON XXVI I . 

SAME WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Observation Exercises. — What part of speech is stone in the first 
sentence of the Example below ? — in the second ? — in the third ? Is 
it the form, or the use, of a word that determines its class ? 



Choosing Right Adjectives. 55 



DIRECTION.— Use each of the words below (1) as a noun, (2) as & 
verb, and (3) as an adjective :— 

Example. — The Moabite stone was broken. 
Stone the reptile. 
Stone implements were found. 

brown iron salt 

right wrong frame 

cash love fancy 

Verbs are often converted into adjectives ; as, lowing 
herds, fallen leaves. 

DIRECTION.— Use each of the following words (1) as an adjective, 
and (2) as a verb or part of a verb :— 



running 


learned 


broken 


dancing 


defeated 


spoken 


cheering 


advanced 


written 



Nouns are often converted into adjectives ; as, meadow 
flowers, leather apron, Virginia planters. 

DIRECTION.— Use each of the following words (1) as an adjective, 
and (2) as a noun :— 

gold mountain London 

cotton California New York 



LESSON X XVIII. 

CHOOSING RIGHT ADJECTIVES. 

DIRECTION.— Mention as many as you can of the qualities be» 
longing* to— 

chalk ice brooks clouds 

water snow ocean music 



56 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



DIRECTION.— Mention animals that maybe described by the ad- 
jectives— 

timid fleet cunning ferocious 

gentle graceful sagacious venomous 

Caution.— Careless persons and those that have a meager 
list of adjectives at command overwork and abuse such 
words as — 

nice, atvful, horrid, splendid, elegant, lovely. 

Nice mountain, aivful pen, horrid ink, splendid pie, elegant beef, 
lovely cheese, etc. — are bad. 

DIUJSCTION.— Study the meaning of the six adjectives last men- 
tioned, and use them to fill the following: blanks, taking- care that the 
adjective chosen fitly qualifies the three nouns to which it is pre^ 
fixed :— 



C distinction 

• -j workmanship 
( calculation 

C stillness 
- < chasm 
(. rumbling 

C child 

• ■< features 

( character 



( palace 
•s victory 






illumination 




deeds 
dreams 
. butchery 



LESSON XXIX. 

CHOOSING AND ARRANGING ADJECTIVES. 

Caution.— We often spoil a word picture by using too 
many adjectives. 
Example. — A great, large, wide, roomy, spacious hall (bad); 
A spacious hall (much better). 



Choosing and. Arranging Adjectives. g^ 



Caution.— We must never use the pronoun them for the 
adjective those. 

Example. — Them apples are ripe (incorrect); 

Those apples are ripe (correct). 

Caution.— These, those, two, three, and other adjectives 
denoting more than one require plural nouns. 

Examples. — These sort of people (incorrect); 

This sort of people (correct). 

Five pound of sugar (incorrect) ; 
Five pounds of sugar (correct). 

Caution.— The adjective an drops n when the first word 
that follows begins with a consonant sound — that is, any 
sound except the open voice sounds of a, e, i, o, u.* 

Examples. — An apple, an enemy, an icicle, an oriole, an wncle, 
a ripe apple, a Sitter enemy, a long icicle, a kind uncle, a man, an 
honest man (h is silent), a Aorse, a unit (u = yoo), a one (one begins 
with the sound of w). 

DIRECTION.— Study the examples above and give the sound that 
controls the form of an. 

To the Teacher. — If the pupils have any difficulty musing the correct form of an, 
tet the list above be extended, and the expressions repeated in quick succession. 

Caution.-— When two or more adjectives are joined to a 
noun, we must look to their arrangement and punctuation. 

Examples. — (a) Industrious young men were chosen. 
(b) Honest, industrious men were chosen. 

* See p. 315. 



58 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Explanation. — In (a), young modifies men, and then industrious 
tells what kind of young men. Young comes next to the noun because 
first in rank. 

In (b), honest and industrious modify the noun independently of each 
other — are of the same rank. In such cases we place the adjectives 
where they will sound best — generally the shortest first. 

"Notice the comma in (b), — and could be supplied ; and could not be 
supplied in (a). 

DIRECTION — Correct the following" as indicated, and give your 
reasons :— 

$ S& ^ !• Suporb, jgelicious 7 magnificent pumpkin-pie. 
J> <^> 2. A stingy ^ miserly / olooo noted f ellow. 

3. Them yulgar fellows should be reproved. 

4. Will you pass thorn potatoes ? 



5. Thooe kind of men should be avoided. 

^// 6. Two bushel A of apples were picked. 

^fo-, 7. The (CTue/ beautif ul\sky is cloudless. 

Ji ^fos. 8. A^t /enthusiasticX Jarge) crowd was addressed. 

9. An old man, tall straight and dignified. 

(Notice the comma between the noun and the three 
adjectives that follow.) 



LESSON XXX. 

ADJECTIVES-REVIEW. 

J> lit ECTION,— Copy the following, noting carefully capitals, spell 
ing, punctuation, and the use of adjectives :— 

We piled with care our nightly stack 
Of wood against the chimney-back, — 



Adjectives— Review. 59 



The oaken log, green, huge, and thick, 
And on its top the stout back-stick ; 
The knotty fore-stick laid apart, 
And filled between with curious art 
The ragged brush ; then, hovering near, 
We watched the first red blaze appear, 
Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleam 
On whitewashed wall and sagging beam, 
Until the old, rude-furnished room 
Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom. 

Whittier. — Sno w- Bound. 

Observation Exercises. — Of what are the lines above a picture ? 
Where, and in what kind of house, do you think this picture was seen ? 

What object is pictured by the help of five adjectives ? Are the ad- 
jectives that precede the name of this object of the same rank ? Are 
those that follow of the same rank ? What noun is modified by three 
adjectives of different rank ? What noun by three adjectives two of 
which are of the same rank ? What difference is found in the punctu- 
ation of these several groups ? 

Notice how the noun crackle crackles as you pronounce it, and how 
the adjective sharp makes it penetrate. Notice how strong a picture 
is made in the two lines immediately before the last. The adjectives 
here used bring out the most prominent qualities of the room, and 
these qualities bring along with them into the imagination all the 
other qualities. This is what we must try to make our adjectives do. 

Point out all the adjectives in the selection above, and explain the 
office of each. 

What peculiar use of capitals do you discover in these lines of poetry 9 

CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— The first word of a line of poetry 
should begin with a capital letter. 

Composition. 
To the Teacher, — Let the pupils describe the building of a great fire in the fire 



(50 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



place of an old-fashioned country house. They may convert the poetical language 
above into plain prose, with such additions as they choose to make. The descrip- 
tion may be in the form of a letter to a city friend. 

The exercises in this lesson are, of course, only suggestions that may be varied and 
extended at will. We recommend that choice passages of description in prose and in 
poetry be put before the pupils for the study of adjectives. 

Let attention be called to the advantage of bringing out only the most prominent 
and characteristic qualities of objects described, and of choosing those adjectives 
that most fitly represent such qualities. 



LESSON XXXI. 

MODIFIED PREDICATE. 

Introductory. — Two words may express a thought in a general way; 
as, Leaves fall. If we wish to bring out particular qualities, we add 
modifiers to the subject ; as, red maple leaves. If we wish to tell how, 
when, where, or why leaves fall, we must add one or more words to the 
predicate to vary or modify its meaning ; as, 

(a) Leaves fall quietly. 

(b) Leaves fall annually. 

(c) Leaves fall here. 

(d) Why do leaves fall ? 

What does why inquire for ? What does here tell ? — annually ?—* 
quietly f 

To a modifier of the subject or a modifier of the predicate we may 
add another modifier ; as, 

(e) Very bright lights are shining. 
(/) Lights are shining very brightly. 

In (e), very modifies bright, in (/), very modifies brightly. In each case 
very tells the extent or degree of brightness. 

We may add another modifier to very, giving more force ; as, 
(g) Lights are shining so very brightly ! 



Modified Predicate. gl 



The Predicate with its Modifiers is called the Modified 
Predicate.* 

Analysis. 

1. The leaves fall very quietly. 

leaves t fall Explanation. — The two lines forming this 

group slant the same way to show that each 
stands for a modifying word. The line standing 
for the principal word of the group is joined to 

the predicate line. The end of the other is broken, and turned to touch 

its principal. 

Oral Analysis — This is a declarative sentence. Leaves is the sub- 
ject, and fall is the predicate. The points out leaves, and is therefore 
a modifier of the subject ; very quietly tells the manner of falling, and 
is therefore a modifier of the predicate ; very tells how quietly. The 
leaves is the modified subject, and fall very quietly is the modified pred- 
icate. 

To the Teacher. — Pupils should be able to give full formal analyses, but to apply 
the full form to every sentence is a waste of time. That the pupil should be able to 
explain in his own language the function and force of each element is essential, but 
he should not be required to repeat mechanically what he is already familiar with. 

2. The crocus flowers very early. 

3. A violet bed is budding near. 

4. Threatening clouds are moving slowly. 

5. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere. 

6. The wind sighs so mournfully ! 

7. Why will people exaggerate so ! 

8. An intensely painful operation was performed. 

9. The patient suffered intensely. 
10. Therefore he spoke excitedly. 

* When we use the word predicate without prefixing a qualifying word, it may bo 
understood to mean the Simple Predicate, or unmodified predicate. 



$2 The Sentence and. the Parts of Speech. 



11. We now travel still more rapidly. 

12. You will undoubtedly be very cordially welcomed. 

13. Have not those severe laws been recently repealed ? 

14. So brave a deed cannot be too warmly commended. 



LESSON XXXI I. 

ADVERBS. 

Introductory. — In arranging words into classes, those that modify 
verbs are called Adverbs. The word adverb means to a verb. With 
adverbs are also put those modifiers that are joined to other modifiers, 
that is, those words that modify adjectives or adverbs. 



DIRECTION.— Point out the adverbs in the sentences for analysis 
in the preceding- Lesson ; explain the office of each, and tell which 
express time, which place, which degree, which manner, and which 
cause. 

Explanation. — There are only two adverbs of cause in these sen- 
tences ; one inquiring for a cause, and the other referring back to some 
cause. Such words as not and undoubtedly may be called adverbs of 
manner. They denote the manner of assertion, not the manner of the 
action. 

DIRECTION.— In the examples of the preceding Lesson find an 
adverb that in one sentence modifies a verb, in another an adjective, 
in another an adverb; one that modifies a verb and an adjective. 

DEFINITION. — An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an 
adjective, or an adverb. 

Caution.— We must place adverbs where they will sound 
best and make the meaning clearest ; as, 



Adverbs. 



63 



Examples. — I only want one pencil (incorrect) ; 

I want only one pencil (correct). 

He must have certainly been sick (incorrect) : 

He must certainly have been sick (correct). 

Caution.— Adverbs, as well as adjectives, are often mis- 
used ; as, 

Example. — You are awfully kind (incorrect) ; 
You are very kind (correct). 

Caution.— Two negative (or denying) words are some- 
times unintentionally made to contradict each other ; as, 

Example. — I have n't no pencil (incorrect) ; 
I have no pencil (correct). 

Remember that a word picture may often be made 
stronger by a proper selection of the noun and the verb 
than by the use of many adjectives and adverbs ; as, 

Examples. — The little feathered creature was startled ; 
The robin was startled (stronger). 

Time passes away very rapidly ; 
Time flies (stronger). 

Review— Parts of Speech. 

niHJECTION.— Arrange all the words in the last eight sentences of 
the preceding Lesson into groups, thus :— 



Nouns. 
crocus 



Pronouns. 



Adjectives. 
the 



Verbs. 
flowers 



Adverbs. 

very 
early 



64: Tine Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSO N XXXII I. 

FORMS OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS-COMPARISON. 

Introductory. — Our knowledge of things, as you learned in Lesson 
XXVI., is a knowledge of their qualities, and much that we know about 
qualities is learned by bringing things into comparison. 

When we speak of horses as large animals, and mice as small, what 
do large and small mean ? Is a horse large compared with an elephant 
or a mountain ? Is a mouse small compared with one of the many 
creatures to be found in a drop of water ? How much meaning would 
these words here convey if we had not in our mind certain groups of 
animals with which we compare horses and mice ? 

When we call a boy good, do we mean good compared with angels ? 

Give other illustrations to show how much our knowledge of qualities 
depends on comparison. 

We often compare two things to find which has more of some quality 
than the other ; as, " This pencil is longer than that." 

We often compare a group of three or more things to find which has 
the most of some quality ; as, " This pencil is the longest of the five." 

What two syllables are here added to the adjective to help in express- 
ing these comparisons ? 

You see that for convenience in denoting comparison adjectives 
have three forms ; as, 

long, long-fer, long + est, 

called by grammarians the positive, the comparative, and the super* 
lative form, or degree. 

Some adverts are varied in the same way ; as, 

soon, soon f er, soon + est. 



DIRECTION.— Make sentences illustrating- the three forms of eacb 
of the following" adjectives (see Rules for Spelling*, p. 318) :— 

Noble, lovely, broad, thin, red, 
nimble, hardy, handsome, heavy, hot. 



Forms of Adjectives and. Adverbs — Comparison. Qfr 



Instead of using the syllables er and est we often prefix 
the adverbs more and most to aid in denoting compari- 
son ; as, 

noble, nobler, noblest = noble, more noble, most noble. 

DIRECTION. — Use the positive, the comparative, and the super* 
lative of each of the following" adjectives and adverbs, selecting* the 
form of comparison that will sound best :— 

Beautiful, pretty, brilliant, 
calm, beautifully, calmly. 

Remark. — Many adverbs are made by adding ly to adjectives. 

Caution.— We should choose the form of comparison that 
will sound best, but we must not use double forms. 

Examples. — Amiabler (wrong), More happier (wrong), 

more amiable (right) . happier (right) . 

Review Exercises. 

D IMJECT IO JV". — Correct the following- as indicated, and give your 
reasons :— 

^ 1. I canXdo no better. 

^^^^/ 2. We had a perfectly ologant - time. 

j) 3. He chose a moro humbler part. 

/Ts&te^ 4. This is a tromcftdoiialy -hard lesson. 

5. I did n't say ■ nothing! 



^&/ 6. We (alwavs/shouldj do our duty. 

c% 7. This was the moot unkindest cut of all, 

5 



()(3 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSO N XXXIV. 

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS-REVIEW. 

ZUKE CTIO 1?.— Co-py the following", noting* carefully capitals, spell* 
ing*, punctuation, and use and form of adjectives and adverbs :— 

Dear though the shadowy maple be, 

And dearer still the whispering pine, 
Dearest yon russet-laden tree 

Browned by the heavy-rubbing kine ! 

There childhood flung its rustling stone, 

There venturous boyhood learned to climb, — 

How well the early graft was known 
Whose fruit was ripe ere harvest-time ! 

Holmes. 

Observation Exercises. — In the first stanza above, what three 
words express different degrees of the same quality ? What three 
things are compared ? 

Why does the poet use shadowy to describe the maple, and whisper- 
ing to describe the pine ? Can a pine really whisper ? Whispering is 
used figuratively. 

What adjective in the third line is used merely to point out ? Rus- 
set and laden, with a hyphen between, form a compound adjective. 
Explain the meaning of this compound. Does the poet use a verb, or 
an adjective, to tell what the "kine " (cows) did to make the apple-tree 
brown ? 

More than half the words in the first stanza are adjectives ; point 
them out. You will find in the second line the only adverb in this 
stanza ; explain its office. 

Can a period of life fling a stone ? Then childhood, in the second 
stanza, must be used figuratively ; explain its meaning. Explain 



Adjectives and Adverbs— Review. Qf 



" venturous boyhood." Explain "rustling stone." Point out a com« 
pound noun made by the aid of a hyphen. 

The line next to the last makes by itself what kind of sentence ? 
Convert this into an interrogative and then into a declarative sentence, 
and point out all changes. What adjective in this line may be used as 
an adverb ? and what adverb as an adjective ? Illustrate. 

Point out and explain the four adverbs in this stanza. 

What kind of letter at the beginning of each line in the selection 
above ? 

You have no doubt noticed that what we here call a stanza corre- 
sponds to the part of a prose composition called a paragraph. How 
many of the above lines are required to make a full set of rhyming 
lines ? * 

Composition. 

To the Teacher. — Let the pupils put the poet's thought into language of their 
own, making some such analysis as the following :— 

TREES. 

Affection for trees. 
Early associations that endear the apple-tree. 

An informal talk on trees will draw out from the pupils many interesting facts, 
which may easily be arranged into a formal composition. 

It will at first be necessary to aid the pupils in finding the proper headings under 
which these facts may be grouped, and in arranging these groups, or paragraphs, in 
proper order. 

Let selections in prose and in poetry be made for Observation Exercises similar 
to those above. 

In all these composition and observation exercises special attention should be paid 
to the application of all that has been taught concerning adjectives and adverbs. 

* Only the teacher can determine whether the pupils are sufficiently mature to 
receive instruction here concerning the nature of verse, its division into feet, etc* 



68 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON XXXV. 

NOUNS, VERBS, ADJECTIVES, AND ADVERBS DIS- 
TINGUISHED. 

DIRECTION.— The abbreviation placed before or after each of the 
f ollowing- words indicates its class, or part of speech ; make sentences, 
employing" these words as indicated :— 

(n. =3 noun, v. = verb, adj. — adjective, adv. = adverb.) 





adv. 


here 


hear v. 


adj. 


new 


knew v. 




adv. 


not 


knot n. 


adj. 


blue 


blew v. 




adv. 


so 


sew v. 
sow v. 


adj. 
adj. 


fore 
coarse 


four adj. 
course n. 




adv. 


wholly 


holy adj. 


adj. 


pale 


pail n. 


adj. 


or adv. 


no 


know v. 


adj. 


whole 


hole n. 


adj. 


or adv. 


right 


write v. 


adj. 


main 


mane n. 




adj. 


dear 


deer n. n. or adj. 


male 


mail n. 




adj. 


red 


read v. 


adj. 


one 


won v. 




adj. 


eight 


ate v. 


adj. 


weak 


week n. 




adj. 


bare 


bear n. or v. 









LESSON XXXVI. 



REVIEW. 

What is a modifier ? Illustrate the meaning of modijied subject. 
What is a diagram ? What is an adjective ? Show that some adjec- 
tives merely point out, and that some express quality. Show that the 
same word may be used as different parts of speech. Mention some 
things to be avoided in using adjectives. Explain the use of an and a. 

What Rule for capitals applies only to poetry ? 

Illustrate the meaning of modified predicate. Show that adverbs 
may modify three different parts of speech. Show that adverbs may 



Phrase Modifiers. (39 



express time, place, degree, manner, or cause. Define an adverb. 
Mention some things to be avoided in the use of adverbs. 

Illustrate the changes in the endings of adjectives and adverbs to 
denote comparison. What substitute for these endings is mentioned ? 
Illustrate what is taught regarding the use of these forms. 



LESSON XXXVI I. 

PHRASE MODIFIERS. 

Introductory. — To express our thoughts more fully and exactly we 
may need to expand a word modifier into several words ; as, " A long 
ride brought us there" = " A ride of one hundred miles brought us to 
Chicago." These groups of words, of one hundred miles and to Chicago, 
— the one substituted for the adjective long, the other for the adverb 
there — we call Phrases. 

Notice that all the words of a phrase are taken together to perform 
one distinct office, usually that of an adjective or of an adverb. 

Make sentences in which each of the following words shall be used to 
introduce and connect a phrase : from, by, at, with, in. Explain the 
office of each phrase. 



DEFINITION.— A Phrase is a group of words denoting related 
ideas but not expressing a thought. 

Analysis. 

1. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of 

vibration. 

, _ , Explanation. — The dia- 

pitch , depends 

gram of the phrase is made up 

of a slanting line standing for 

the introductory word, and a 

horizontal line representing 

the principal word. Under 

the latter are drawn the lines 

that represent the modifiers of the principal word. 




70 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Oral Analysis — This is a declarative sentence. Pitch is the suoject, 
and depends is the predicate. The and the adjective phrase of the 
musical note are modifiers of the subject ; the adverb phrase upon the 
rapidity of vibration is a modifier of the predicate. Of introduces the 
first phrase, and note is the principal word ; the and musical are modi- 
fiers of note. Upon introduces the second phrase, and rapidity is the 
principal word ; the and the adjective phrase of vibration are modifiers 
of rapidity ; of introduces this adjective phrase, and vibration is the 
principal word. 

The pitch of the musical note is the modified subject, and depends 
upon the rapidity of vibration is the modified predicate. 

2. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. ' 

3. Read from the book of nature. 

4. Was New York settled by the Dutch ? 

5. The second Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia. 

6. The subject of a sentence is generally placed before the predicate. 

7. The first word of every entire sentence should begin with a 
capital letter. 

8. The North Pole has been approached in three principal direc- 
tions. 

9. What a chorus of insect voices may be heard in June ! 

10. The Gulf Stream can be traced along the shores of the United 
States by the blueness of the water. 



LESSON XXXVI II, 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Introductory. — The little words that in the preceding Lesson are 
placed before nouns, thus forming phrases, belong to a class of words 
called Prepositions.* 

* From Lat. prce, before, and positus, placed — their usual position being before the 
noun with which they form a phrase. 



Prepositions. ^1 



These prepositions, as you have learned, introduce and connect 
phrases. Let us look more closely into their office. 

In the sentence " The squirrel ran up a tree," up shows the relation 
that the act of running has to the tree. Repeat this sentence, using in 
place of up each of the following words in succession : around, behind, 
down, into, over, through, to, under, from. You see that these ten 
prepositions enable you to express ten different relations that the run- 
ning bears to the tree. 



DEFINITION.— A Preposition is a word that introduces a 
phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal 
word to the word modified. 

DIRECTION.— Point out all the prepositions in the preceding: Les- 
son, and tell what they bring* into relation. 

Caution.— Great care must be used in the choice of prep- 
ositions ; as, 

Examples. — He went in the house (wrong) ; 

He went into the house (right). 

She stays to home (wrong) ; 
She stays at home (right). 

DIRECTION.— "Rewrite the following* sentences, changing- the ital- 
icized words into equivalent phrases : — 

Example. — The sentence was carefully written. 
The sentence was written with care. 

1. A group of children were strolling homeward. 

2. The old soldier fought courageously. 

3. No season of life should be spent idly. 

4. The English ambassador had not then arrived. 

5. That generous act was liberally rewarded. 

6. Much has been said about the Siviss scenery. 



72 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



7. A brazen image was there set up. 

8. Those homeless children were kindly treated. 

Same Words as Prepositions and as Adverbs. 

DIRECTION.— Use the following* words as prepositions and as 
adverbs :— 

Example. — Birds were singing above us. 
Birds were singing above. 

aboard after around before 

below by over past 



LESSON XXXIX. 

ARRANGEMENT AND PUNCTUATION OF PHRASES. 

DIRECTION.— Copy the following", and note the arrangement and 
the punctuation of the phrases :— 

(a) This place is endeared to me by many associations. 

(b) To me, this place is endeared by many associations. 

(c) Your answers, with few exceptions, have been correctly given. 

(d) He applied for the position, without a recommendation. 

Observation Exercises. — Phrases in their natural order follow 
the words they modify. When two or more phrases belong to the 
same word, the one most closely modifying it stands nearest to it. 

In the first sentence above, to me tells to whom the place is endeared ; 
by many associations tells how it is endeared to me, and is therefore 
placed after to me. Try the effect of placing to me last. Phrases, like 
adjectives, may be of different rank. (See Lesson XXIX.) 

Phrases are often transposed, or placed out of their natural order. 

Notice that to me, in (b) above, is transposed and thus made em- 
phatic, and that it is set off by the comma. 



Arrangement and Punctuation of Phrases ^3 



In (c), the phrase is loosely thrown in as if it were not essential, thus 
making a break in the sentence. To make this apparent to the eye we 
set the phrase off by the comma. 

Place the phrase of (c) in three other positions, and set it off. When 
]he phrase is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence, how many 
commas do you need to set it off ? How many, when it is in the 
middle ? 

Do you find any choice in the four positions of this phrase ? After 
having been told that your answers were correct, would it be a disap- 
pointment to be told that they were not all correct ? Is the interest in 
a story best kept up by first telling the important points and then the 
unimportant particulars ? What, then, do you think of placing this 
phrase at the end ? 

What does the last phrase of (d) modify ? Take out the comma, and 
then see whether there can be any doubt as to what the phrase 
modifies. 

Let us sum up what we have just learned. 

Caution.— Place phrases (and other modifiers) where they 
will sound best and make the meaning clearest — generally 
as near as possible to the word modified. 

COMMA— RULE.— Phrases that are placed out of their natural 
order and made emphatic, or that are loosely connected with the 
rest of the sentence, should be set off by the comma. 

COMMA— GENERAL RULE.— Use the comma whenever it will 
make the meaning 1 clearer. 

DIRECTION.— Explain the punctuation of the following" sentences; 
determine what different positions the phrases will take, which form 
you prefer, and the punctuation for each form :— 

1. For this, time will be required. 

2. In 1837, on the death of William IV., Victoria succeeded to the 
throne. 

3. "No valuable knowledge can be acquired without labor. 



<^4 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



4. From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, 
Leaps the live thunder. 

5. In the preceding sentence, from Byron, among is transposed. 

6. He went from New York to Philadelphia on Monday. 

7. In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a 
truce, he approached. 

8. The stories of the adventures of Capt. John Smith were, without 
doubt, somewhat exaggerated. 

9. It has come down by uninterrupted tradition from the earliest 
times to the present day. 

10. Between the two mountains lies a fertile valley. 

Observation Exercises. — In (1) above, what change in emphasis is 
made by putting the words in their natural order ? Without the 
comma in (1) what confusion might arise ? Why is the transposed 
phrase in (10) not set off ? 

What part of speech is among, in (5) ? — in (4) ? 

D1HECT IO -#.— Correct these errors in position ; give your reasons ; 

use the comma if necessary :— 

11. The honorable member was reproved for being intoxicated by 
the President. 

12. That small man is speaking with red whiskers. 

13. A message was read from the President in the Senate. 

14. Some garments were made for the poor family of thick material. 

15. On Monday evening on temperance by Mr. Gough a lecture at 
the old brick church was delivered. 

To the Teacher. — In the placing of adverbs and phrases great freedom is often 
allowable, and the determining of their best possible position affords an almost un- 
limited opportunity for the exercise of taste and judgment. 

Many of the principles that underlie the construction of the sentence may be here 
introduced and worked into the pupil's mode of thought and expression, if only the 
technicalities of the rhetoricians be avoided, and the pupil be led by easy steps to 
observe, and to draw his own conclusions. 

Such questions as those on (c) above, may suggest one mode of easy approach to 
what is usually regarded as an abstruse subject. 



Parts of Speech Distinguished 



75 



Lead the pnpils to discover for themselves that phrases may be transposed for va- 
rious reasons— for emphasis, as in (1) above; for the sake of balancing the sentence 
by letting some of the modifying terms precede, and some follow, the principal parts, 
as in (2)"; for the purpose of exciting the reader's curiosity and holding his attentioE 
till the complete statement is made, as in (7); and for other reasons. 

Let the effects of all possible changes in the above examples be fully discussed bj 
the pupils. This may require the time of several recitations. 

Other short, easy selections may be made and these exercises continued. 

Additional Exercises in Analysis. 

The examples above have been carefully prepared with reference to their bein^ 
used as additional exercises in analysis. 

Composition. 

We suggest that, from two or more paragraphs of some interesting and instructive 
article, leading sentences be selected, and that the pupils be required to explain the 
office and the punctuation of the easier adjective and adverb phrases, to vary the ar- 
rangement in every possible way, and to discuss the effects of these changes. Then, 
after finding the general subject, and the heading for each paragraph, the pupils may 
arrange these sentences and work them into a composition, making such additions 
as may be suggested. 



LESSON XL- 
parts, of SPEECH DISTINGUISHED. 

DIRECTION.— Make sentences, employing: the following- words as 
indicated by the abbreviations :— 

{prep. — preposition, pro. ±= pronoun.) 



prep. 


to 


too adv. 
two adj. 


v. 


sent 


cent n. 
scent n. 


prep. 


in 


inn n. 


v. 


lain 


lane n. 


prep. 


through 


threw v. 


n. or v. 


bow 


bough n. 


prep, or adj. 


past 


passed v. 


v. 


guessed 


guest n. 


adv. 


forth 


fourth adj. 


v. 


led 


lead n. 


adj. 


great 


grate n. or v. 


adj. 


all 


awl n. 


adv. 


there 


their pro. 


v. 


break 


brake n. 


v. 


pare 


pear n. 
pair n. 


V. 

adj. 


lessen 
some 


lesson n. 
sum n. 


n. or v. 


pause 


paws n. 


v. 


wring 


ring n. or v. 



76 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON XLI. 

COMPOUND PARTS. 

Introductory. — (a) William and Mary reigned together. 
(b) Tides ebb and flow. 

William and Mary, connected by and, form the Compound Sub- 
ject of reigned. 

Ebb and flow, connected by and, form the Compound Predicate 
of tides. 

Other parts may be compounded ; as, 

(c) Cloudy or rainy weather may be expected. 

(d) The figure swayed back and forth. 

(e) Dispatches were received from London and from Paris. 

Point out the connective that links together the parts of each com- 
pound, and explain the office of the connected terms. 



Two or more connected subjects having the same predi- 
cate form a Compound Subject. 

Two or more connected predicates having the same sub- 
ject form a Compound Predicate. 

Analysis. 

1. Ah ! anxious wives, sisters, and mothers wait for the news. 

£h Explanation. — The three short hor- 

izontal lines represent each a part of 
the compound subject. They are 
connected by dotted lines, which stand 
for the connecting words. The x 
shows that a connective is under- 
stood. The line standing for the 
word modifier is joined to that part of the diagram which represents 




Compound Parts. ftf 



the three subjects united. Turn this diagram about, and the connected 
horizontal lines will stand for the parts of a compound predicate. 

The line standing for ah is placed apart to show that this word is in- 
dependent. 

Oral Analysis. — Wives, sisters, and mothers form the compound 
subject ; anxious is a modifier of the compound subject ; and connects 
sisters and mothers. Ah is an exclamatory word used independently. 

(Fill in from preceding models.) 

2. Lightning and electricity were identified by Franklin. 
* 3. The mental, moral, and muscular powers are improved by use. 
f 4. The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land and of a 
strange parentage. 

5. The Revolutionary War began at Lexington and ended at York- 
town. 

6. A sort of gunpowder was used at an early period in China and in 
other parts of Asia. 

7. The small but courageous band was finally overpowered. 

8. A complete success or an entire failure was anticipated. 
\ 9. Both friend and foe applauded. 

10. All forms of the lever and all the principal kinds of hinges are 
found in the body. 

11. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the eyeball, 
and there spreads out. 

12. From the Mount of Olives, the Dead Sea, dark and misty and 
solemn, is seen. 



powers 




X friend 
^~\ Explanation.— The conjunction both is used 

U— s K I a PP^uded to strengthen the real connective and. So with 

foe '^ / either— or and neither — nor. 



78 The Sentence and. the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON XLII. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 



Introductory. — The connecting words which, in the preceding Les- 
son, were used to join words and phrases into compound elements, be* 
long to a class of words called Conjunctions. 

"Men may come and men may go, 
But I go on forever." 

How many separate sentences can you make of the two lines above ? 
To do this, what words must you omit ? These, then, are the words 
that join the separate sentences into one compound expression. 

A sentence thus joined to another we call a Clause. 

What three kinds of expressions may conjunctions connect? 

Notice that words and phrases connected by conjunctions have the 
same office in the sentence — are of the same rank. 



DEFINITION. — A Conjunction is a word used to connect 
words, phrases, or clauses. 

DIH M 'CI ION. —Point out the conjunctions in the preceding- Lesson,, 
and tell what they connect. Tell where conjunctions are omitted, 
and what may be supplied. 

Observation Exercises — Review. — Read what is said in Lesson 
XXXIX. about the order and "rank" of phrases. Find in the sen- 
tences of Lesson XLI. three phrases modifying the same word two of 
which are of the same rank, forming a compound phrase. Are these 
phrases in their natural order ? How could the arrangement be 
changed ? Explain the use or the omission of the comma with these 
phrases in their different positions. Find a phrase at the beginning of 
a sentence modifying a word at the end. Why is it set off ? 

Read what is said on p. 58, Explanation, about the order and 
rank of adjectives. Omit but from (7), Less. XLI., and decide, from 
what you have just read, whether a comma would be needed. Find in. 



Connected Terms— Punctuation. ^ 



the sentences of Less. XLI. three adjectives of the same rank preced- 
ing their noun, and three of the same rank following their noun. 
What difference do you find in their connection and in their punctua- 
tion? Observe the punctuation of other connected terms in Less. XLI. 
Can you draw any conclusion ? 

Notice that the group of adjectives following the noun is set off from 
the rest of the sentence by two commas. See also the last sentence of 
Less. XXIX. The rule for phrases may apply to these transposed 
groups. 

Are adjectives of different rank separated by the comma ? Illus- 
trate. 

Can you see any reason for using were in (2) and was in (8), Less. 
XLI. ? How many things "were identified" ? Were two results 
"anticipated"? Point out in Less. XLI. the predicates that can 
agree only with singular subjects, and those that can agree only with 
plural subjects, and show that they are correctly used. 



LESSON XLIII. 

CONNECTED TERMS-PUNCTUATION. 
DIRECTION,— Copy the following" and notice the punctuation :— 

1. Dark and threatening clouds appear. 

2. Dark, threatening clouds appear. 

3. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. 

4. That old, rickety wooden building has fallen. 

5. We are fearfully, wonderfully made. 

6. The work was done carefully, intelligently, and conscientiously. 

7. Dispatches were received from London, from Paris, and from St* 
Petersburgh. 

8. Gold or silver will be received in payment. 



SO The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



9. Days, months, years, and ages circle away. 
10. Caesar came, saw, and conquered. 
* 11. Ca?sar came and saw and conquered. 

Observation Exercises. — What differences do you discover in (1) 
and (2) ? Are the adjectives in (3) of the same rank ? Which adjec- 
tives in (4) are of the same rank ? Are the commas in (2), (4), and (5) 
used for the same reason ? How many conjunctions are omitted ip 
(6) ? How many commas are used ? Apply the last two questions to 
(7), (8), (9), (10), and (11). Under what circumstances do you find a 
comma before a conjunction ? 

COMMA— RULE,— Words or phrases connected by conjunctions 
are separated from each other by the comma unless all the con- 
junctions are expressed. 

DIRECTION.— Tell how the Rule applies to each of the sentences 
above. 

DIRECTION.— Copy the following", and tell why commas are, oi 
are not, used with the connected terms :— 

12. Animals see, hear, feel, smell, and taste. 

13. Cotton is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the United States. 

14. The old, historic Charter Oak was blown down. 

15. A daring but foolish feat was performed. 

16. A pair of old, shabby, and dirty white kid gloves were drawn on. 

17. We climbed up a mountain for a view. 

18. Augustus, Tiberius, Nero, and Vespasian were Roman emperors. 

19. The book is published by Little, Brown, & Co., of Boston. 

20. The air, the earth, and the water teem with delighted existence. 

* In a series of three or more connected terms, the conjunction is usually expressed 
only between the last two terms ; but, when, for the sake of emphasis or rhetorical 
effect, the conjunctions are all retained, writers differ as to the use of the comma. 
Additional emphasis is sometimes sought by putting a comma before each coi* 
•junction. 



Connected Terms— Punctuation. 3J 



LESSON XLIV. 

CONNECTED TERMS-PUNCTUATION-CONTINUED., 

DIRECTION — Copy the following- sentences, and punctuate ac- 
cording" to the Rule in the preceding Lesson :— 

1. Bright healthful vigorous poetry was written by Milton. 

2. Men women and children stare cry out and run. 

3. You have now learned about the noun the pronoun the adjective 
the verb the adverb the preposition and the conjunction. 

4. We traveled through England through Scotland and through 
Ireland. 

5. The lion the tiger and the panther belong to the cat tribe. 

DIRECTION .— Copy the following* sentences, and notice whether 
the Rule in the preceding Lesson is strictly followed :— 

6. Wild birds shrieked, and fluttered on the ground. 

7. The tireless, sleepless sun rises above the horizon, and climbs 
slowly and steadily to the zenith. 

8. A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or 
female, friend or foe. 

9. Ireland, or the Emerald Isle, lies to the west of England. 

Observation Exercises. — Does the phrase in (6) modify one part, or 
both parts, of the predicate ? Does the comma help you to see this ? 
Name separately the two parts of the modified predicate in (7). Does 
the comma help the eye to separate these parts ? 

Find the pairs of words in (8). Notice that these three pairs are 
separated as if they were single terms, but that the words in the pairs 
are not separated. 

Compare (9) above with (8) of the preceding Lesson, and note the 
difference in relation, and in punctuation, of the terms connected by or. 

Exceptions to the preceding Rule. — When the connected terms 
are long or differently modified, they are sometimes separated by the 
comma, though no conjunction is omitted. 
6 



£0 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



When words are in pairs, the pairs are separated by the comma, but 
the words of each pair are not. 

When two terms connected by or have the same meaning, the latter 
term is set off by the comma. 

DIRECTION.— Copy the following" sentences and apply the instruc- 
tion above to their punctuation :— 

10. Caoutchouc or India-rubber is obtained from the juice of trees. 

11. A difficult question was asked and answered without hesitation, 

12. Spring and summer autumn and winter rush by in quick suc- 
cession. 

13. The brain is protected by the cranium or skull. 

14. The room was furnished with a table and a chair without a back. 

15. The poor and rich and weak and strong depend upon one Father. 

• To the Teacher . — Pupils may be required to select or compose other examples 
to illustrate the punctuation of connected terms. 

Additional Exercises in Analysis. 

To the Teacher. — The sentences in Lessons XLIII. and XLIV. have been 
graded that they may be used as additional examples for analysis. 



LESSON XLV. 

CONNECTED SUBJECTS-AGREEMENT. 

DIRECTION.— Copy the following", and note the agreement of the 
verb with its compound subject :— 

, 1. Beauty and utility are combined in nature. 
2. Either beauty or utility appears in every natural object. 
8. Here is neither beauty nor utility. 

Observation Exercises. — In the sentences above, what conjunction 
joins words, and shows that the things named are taken together ? 



Connected Subjects— Agreement. $3 



What conjunctions join words, but show that the things named are to 
be taken separately ? How many nouns form the subject of (1) ? 
How many, the subject of (2) ? How, then, do you explain the use of 
are in (1), appears in (2), and is in (3) ? 

Caution.— With two or more subjects connected by and 
the verb agrees in the plural. 

With two or more singular subjects connected by or or 
nor the verb agrees in the singular. 

IUKJECTION.—Coipy the following*,' and show that the italicized 
words are correct according: to the Caution above :— 

4. Time and tide wait for no man. 

5. Wisdom and prudence dwell with the lowly man. 

6. Does either landlord or tenant profit by this bill ? 

7. Neither landlords nor tenants profit by this bill. 

DIRECTION.— Copy the following", and note the agreement of the 
verb with its subject :— 

8. Each word and gesture was suited to the thought. 

9. Every bud, leaf, and blade of grass rejoices after the warm rain. 

10. No dew, no rain, no cloud comes to the relief of the parched 
earth. u 

11. In the death of Franklin, a philosopher and statesman was lost 
to the world. 

Observation Exercises. — Name the subjects in (8), (9), and (10) 
above, tell how their parts are connected, and whether the predicate 
verbs agree in the singular or in the plural. In each of these three sen- 
tences what word indicates that the fhings named by the compound 
subject are to be taken separately ? 

What is the subject in (11) ? How does the ^erb agree ? Do the 
words philosopher and statesman refer to two persons ? 

Caution. — When singular subjects connected by and are 



84 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



preceded by each, every, or no, the verb agrees in the sin- 
gular. 

When singular connected subjects name the same thing, 
the verb agrees in the singular. 

DIRECTION.— Show that the following* italicized words are cor- 
rect :— 

12. Every fly, bee, beetle, and butterfly is provided with six feet. 

13. That desperate robber and murderer was finally secured. 

14. The builder and owner of the yacht has sailed from Liverpool on 
the City of Borne. 

Observation Exercises. — Tell how the last two sentences above 
differ from the first two below. Notice that, if but one the were used 
in (17) below, it would appear that the same stanza could be both fifth 
and sixth ; and notice that, if but one a were used in (18), blind and 
lame would describe one man. 

If stanza were plural, it would be incorrect to repeat the, for stanzas 
would be understood after fifth. 

DIRECTION.— Explain the agreement of the verbs in the follow* 
ingr sentences:— 

15. That despemte robber and that murderer were finally secured. 

16. The builder and the owner of the yacht have sailed from Liver- 
pool. 

17. The fifth and the sixth stanza were added at a later date. 

18. A lame and a blind man were provided with food and lodging. 

Arrangement of. Connected Subjects. 

Observation Exercises. — Which do you think the more polite form, 
" You and J are invited," or " /and you are invited" ? — "Mary and 
/are invited," or "J and Mary are invited" ? — " You and Mary are 
invited," or " Mary and you are invited " ? — " You and Mary and 1 
are invited/' or"I and Mary and you are invited " ? 



Independent Elements— Interjections. 3§ 



We trust the conclusion to your good breeding. 

Additional Exercises in Analysis. 

To the Teacher.— The, sentences above have been selected with reference to use 
for exercises in analysis. 



LESSON XLVI. 

INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS— INTERJECTIONS. 

Introductory. — Oh! ah! alas! ha, ha, ha! hollo! hurrah ! pshaw ! 
etc. express sudden bursts of feeling. As they have no grammatical 
relation to any other word in the sentence, we say that they are inde- 
pendent. See ah, Less. XLL, Diagram and Oral Analysis. 

Such words form the eighth and last part of speech. They are called 
Interj ections. * 

Words belonging to other parts of speech become Interjections when 
used as mere exclamations ; as, 

(a) What ! are you going ? 

(b) Well ! you surprise me. 

Other words besides interjections may be used independently ; as, 

(c) Come on, boys. 

(d) Well, we will try it. 

(e) Now, that is strange. 
(/) Why, this looks right. 
(g) There is reason in this. 

Boys simply arrests the attention of the persons addressed. Well, 
now, and why are used colloquially to introduce sentences without 
materially adding to the meaning. There, as here used, loses its 
ordinary meaning, and serves merely to throw the subject after the 
predicate. This use of there is very common and very convenient. 

* Lat. inter, between, and jacere, to throw. 



3(3 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Adverbial words and phrases are often so used as to be nearly 
independent ; as, 

(h) Lee did not, however, follow Washington's orders. 
(%) This, in fact, needs no proof. 

Notice carefully the punctuation of the examples above. 



DEFINITION. — An Interjection is a word used to express 
strong or sudden feeling. 

Analysis. 

DUtHCTION.— Diagram the following- sentences, and explain the 
force of the interjections and other independent words :— 

Explanation. — In the diagram, independent words should be placed 
apart from the rest of the sentence. See ah in diagram, Less. XLI. 

1. Ugh ! I look forward with dread to to-morrow. 

2. Tush ! tush ! 't will not again appear. 

3. Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomiums upon Massachu- 
setts. 

4. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep-market, a pool. 

Punctuation. 

DIME CTION. —Copy the following expressions, and note carefully 
each mark of punctuation :— 

1. Sail on, Ship of State ! 

2. Look, then, into thy heart. 

3. Shame ! where is thy blush ? 

4. Boast not, my dear friend, of to-morrow 

5. Hurrah ! the field is won. 

6. Knock, knock, knock ! Who's there ? 

7. There is gold here. 

8. ~New York, on the contrary, abounds in men of wealth. 

9. Oh ! how terrible ! 

10. Oh, what a magnificent landscape ! 



Independent Elements— Interjections. QV 



11. Oh, that is easily explained. 

12. Boys, shout. Boys shout. 

13. Ah, certainly, I understand. 

Observation Exercises. — Name the interjections in the examples 
above. Which of these unite with other words to make one exclama- 
tory expression ? Which are followed immediately by the exclamation 
point ? Which one is set off: from the rest of the exclamatory expres- 
sion by the comma ? Can you see any reason why (9) and (10) should 
be punctuated differently ? 

Mention the independent expressions used to name the persons or 
things addressed. Which of these are exclamatory ? Which are set 
off by the comma ? Which one is set oif by the exclamation point ? 

Do you find any mark immediately after when it introduces a 
term of address ? Point out two interjections that have lost their ex- 
clamatory force. How are they punctuated ? 

Point out the adverbial expressions that are independent or nearly 
so. How is each punctuated ? 

COMMA— RULE. — Words and phrases independent or nearly so 
are set off by the comma. 

Remark. — No comma is used after the exclamation point, and there, 
used merely to introduce, is never set off. 

Observation Exercises — Review. — Which of the above expressions 
are sentences ? Classify these sentences. What two kinds of sen- 
tences are followed by the period ? What three kinds of marks may 
stand at the end of a sentence ? These are called terminal marks. 

Analyze the two sentences in (12), and explain their differences fully. 

Distinguishing 1 the Parts of Speech. 

To the Teacher.— From the two preceding Lessons sentences may be selected 
illustrating all the parts of speech. The pupils may be required to arrange these into 
columns with proper headings, as in Less. XXXII. 

The teacher must determine how much of this work is profitable, remembering that 
the exact office of a word is of more importance to the pupil than its name. 



gg The Sentence and the Part^ of Speech. 



LESSON XLVII. 

REVIEW. 

What is a phrase ? What is a preposition ? Illustrate what is said 
about the choice of prepositions. Show how a preposition may become 
an adverb. 

Show how the position of a phrase may be varied. Give the general 
Caution for the position of phrases. Give and illustrate the Rule for 
punctuating phrases. 

Illustrate and explain compound subject and compound predicate. 
What three kinds of expressions may a conjunction connect ? Define a 
conjunction. Give and illustrate the Rule for punctuating connected 
terms. Illustrate the exceptions. 

Illustrate the agreement of the verb with subjects connected by and, 
— by or or nor ; with connected subjects preceded by each, every, or 
no ; with connected subjects that name the same thing. Show the 
effect of repeating the, an or a, etc. with connected terms. 

Illustrate different kinds of independent words. What is an inter- 
jection ? Give the Rule for punctuating independent terms. 

DIRECTION.— Correct the following:, and give your reasons:— 

^^ yW 1. The second and^third volume ha* not been pub- 
lished. 

$> 2. The second and the third volumes of the new dic- 

tionary have not been published. 



^, 3. (j/and\Henr^belong to a base-ball club. 

3 2 1 



The Object Complement. g9 



LESSON XLVIII. 

THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 

Introductory. — In saying "Washington captured" we do not fully 
tell what Washington did. If we add a noun and say, "Washington 
captured Comwallis" we complete the predicate* by naming that 
which receives the action. 

Whatever fills out, or completes, is a Complement. As Comwallis 
completes the predicate by naming the thing acted upon — the object, — 
we call it the Object Complement. 

Connected objects completing the same verb form a compound 
object complement; as, "Washington captured Comwallis and 
his army. " 

You are now prepared to see what is wanting in the following ex- 
pressions, and to explain the office of the word or words you may sup- 
ply in each. 

(a) The sun gives . (c) The officer arrested — . 

(b) Charles saw . (d) Coopers make . 



DEFINITION.— The Object Complement of a Sentence 
completes the predicate, and names that which receives the act. 

The complement with all its modifiers is called the 
Modified Complement. 

Analysis. 

1. Clear thinking makes clear writing. 

Explanation. — The line standing for 

thinking makes , writing the object complement is a continua- 

\£ \% tion of the predicate line. The little 

v \ vertical line only touches this without 

cutting it. 

* We may call the verb the predicate ; but, when followed by a complement, it is 
an incomplete predicate. 



90 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Oral Analysis, — (As before.) Writing, completing the predicate 
and naming the thing acted upon, is the object complement. (As be- 
fore.) Clear writing' is the modified complement, and makes clear 
writing is the entire predicate. 

2. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. 

3. Harvey discovered the circulation of blood. 

4. Fulton invented the first steamboat. 

5. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. 

6. We find the first surnames in the tenth century. 

7. Cromwell gained at Naseby a most decisive victory over the 
Royalists. 

* 8. At the opening of the thirteenth century, Oxford took and held 
rank with the greatest schools of Europe, 
f 9. The moon revolves, and keeps the same side toward us. 

10. The history of the Trojan war rests on the authority of Homer, 
and forms the subject of the noblest poem of antiquity. 

11. Every stalk, bud, flower, and seed displays a figure, a propor- 
tion, a harmony, beyond the reach of art. 

Observation Exercises — Review. — Account for the commas above. 
Notice that, without the last comma in (11), the phrase might appear 
to modify harmony alone. Explain the agreement of the verb in (11). 



LESSON XLIX. 

THE ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT. 

Introductory. — A complete predicate does two things — it asserts, 
and it expresses what is asserted. 

In " Grass grows" grows does both offices. In " Grass is growing," 
is asserts and growing expresses what is asserted. 

* t0 °k **" revolves 

Oxford 



-H 



held 



, rank 



keeps , side 



The Attribute Complement. 91 



In " Grass is green," the adjective green expresses what is asserted of 
grass, and so completes the predicate. 

In ''Lizards are reptiles," the noun reptiles, naming the class of the 
animals called lizards, completes the predicate. 

You are now prepared to see what is wanting in the following ex- 
pressions, and to explain the office of the adjective or the noun you 
may supply. 

(a) Maple leaves become . (c) The mountain seems . 

(b) The experiment was pronounced . (d) The sky grows . 

A word that completes the predicate and belongs to the subject we 
call an Attribute Complement. But, when the complement and 
the asserting word make one verb — as in " Grass is growing," — we do 
not usually separate them in ' ' analysis. " 

Connected attribute complements of the same verb form a com- 
pound, attribute complement. 



DEFINITION.— The Attribute Complement of a Sentence 
completes the predicate and belongs to the subject. 

Analysis. 

1. Slang is vulgar. 

Slang is vulgar Explanation. — The line standing for the 

I _ - ~ attribute complement is, like the object 

line, a continuation of the predicate line ; but notice that the line 

which separates the incomplete predicate from the complement slants 

toward the subject to show that the complement is an attribute of it. 

Oral Analysis. — (As before.) Vulgar, completing the predicate and 
expressing a quality of slang, is the attribute complement ; is vulgar is 
the entire predicate. 

2. Pure water is tasteless. 

3. How wonderful is the advent of spring ! 



92 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



4. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 

5. Roger Williams was the founder of Rhode Island. 

6. The mountains are grand, tranquil, and lovable. 

7. Jefferson was chosen the third President of the United States. 

8. Most mountain ranges run parallel with the coast. 

9. The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerful. 

10. All the kings of Egypt are called, in Scripture, Pharaoh. 

11. Aristotle and Plato were the most distinguished philosophers of 
antiquity. 



LESSON L. 

COMPLEMENTS-ANALYSIS. 

1. Nathan Hale died a martyr to liberty. 

2. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. 

3. Columbus crossed the Atlantic with ninety men, and landed at 
San Salvador. 

4. Lord Cornwallis became governor of Bengal after his disastrous 
defeat. 

5. America has furnished to the world tobacco, the potato, and In- 
dian corn. 

6. He came a foe and returned a friend. 

7. The Saxon words in English are simple, homely, and substantial. 

8. The French and the Latin words in English are elegant, dignified, 
and artificial. 

9. Stillness of person and steadiness of features are signal marks of 
good-breeding. 

Observation Exercises — Review. — Explain the agreement of the 
verb in (11), Less. XLIX., and in (9), Less. L. Why are two thes used 
in (8), Less. L. ? What word is here omitted ? 

Tell why the comma is used, or omitted, with the phrases and con- 
nected terms in Lessons XLIX. and L. 



Attribute Complements and. Adverbs— Construction. 93 



LESSON LI. 

ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS AND ADVERBS-CON- 
STRUCTION. 

Caution.— Be careful to distinguish an adjective comple- 
ment from an adverb modifier. 

Explanation. — " Mary arrived safe." As we here wish to tell the 
condition of Mary on her arrival, and not the manner of her arriving, 
we use safe, not safely. " My head feels bad " (is in a bad condition, 
as perceived by the sense of feeling). "The sun shines bright" (is 
bright — quality, — as perceived by its shining). 

You must determine whether you wish to tell the quality of the 
thing named or the manner of the action. 

When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples 
above, you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows. 

DIIiJECTION.—Sh.ow that the following" adjectives and adverbs 
are used correctly:— 

1. I feel sad. 

2. I feel deeply. * 

3. I feel miserable. 

4. He appeared prompt and willing. 

5. He appeared promptly and willingly. 

DIRECTION.— From, the following* groups of woids fill the blanks 
in the sentences below, giving- your reason for each selection :— 



bad 
badly 


safe 
safely 


harsh 
harshly 


A beautiful 
4 

beautifully 


strange 
strangely 


cheap 
cheaply 


7 cold 
coldly 


graceful 
gracefully 


slow 
slowly 


10 g0 ° d 

well 


natural 
naturally 


easier 
12 

more easily 



94 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



1. We accomplished it (2). 

2. The structure did not appear (2). 

3. My head pains me very (1). 

4. This writing looks (1). 

5. Do not speak (3). 

6. Your voice sounds (3). 

7. She looks (4). 

8. She sings (4). 

9. My friend has acted very • (5) in this matter. 

10. Everything appears — (5) .'to me. 

11. It was sold — • — (6). 

12. The lady looked down on him (7). 

13. The lady looked — (7). 

14. The child appeared easy and (8). 

15. The curtain hangs (8). 

16. You must speak (9) and (11). 

17. I slept (10). 

18. It is (12) said. 

DIRECTION*— Join to each of the following' nouns three or more 
adjectives expressing" the qualities as assumed, and then assert these 
qualities (observe Rule, Less. XLIII. ) :— 

Hard J 

Example. — brittle > glass. 

transparent ) 

Glass is hard, brittle, and transparent. 

Chalk, lead, clouds, flowers, weather. 

DIRECTION.— Using" the following* nouns as subjects, compose 
sentences each of which shall have a compound object complement:-* 

Sun, trees, lawyers, authors, education. 



Nominative Forms and. Objective Forms. 95 



LESSON LII. 

NOMINATIVE FORMS AND OBJECTIVE FORMS. 
DIRECTION.— Note the office and the form of each pronoun be- 
low :— 

1. I can take nothing with me. 

2. We are free. 

3. Thou wilt hear me. 

4. Ye know not the hour. 

5. He will help us. 

6. Did she not speak to us ? 

7. Heaven will help thee. 

8. To thee they cry. 

9. The watchman saw him and spoke to him. 

10. Who clothes her and cares for her ? 

11. The officer saw them and ran after them. 

12. To whom was the message sent ? 

13. Whom did the president appoint ? 

14. It is I. 18. It is he. 

15. It is we. 19. It is she. 

16. It is thou. 20. It is they. 

17. It is ye. 21. It is who ? 

Observation Exercises. — I and me in (1) represent the same person ; 
see whether they will exchange places. In the other examples, try the 
same with, ice and us; with he and him; with she and her ; with they 
and them ; with who and whom. What do you conclude from this ? 

Find in the sentences above all the pronouns used as subjects, and 
write them in order. Find all the pronouns used as object comple- 
ments, and write them in order. Find all the pronouns used with 
prepositions to form phrases, and write them in order. Find all the 
pronouns used as attribute complements, and write them in order. 

Compare these four lists and strike out those that are mere repeti- 
tions. What two uses do you find for all the pronouns in your first 
list ? — in your second ? 



The Sentence and. the Parts of Speech. 



We may call the forms in the first list subject forms, but grammari- 
ans usually call them nominative forms {nominative means nam* 
ing). Those in the second list are called objective forms. 

Use each of the following nouns as subject, as attribute complement, 
as object complement, and as principal word in a prepositional phrase; 
and see whether the nouns change their forms for these different uses : — 

Historian, poet, artist. 

Do you think that nouns have distinctive nominative and objective 
forms ? 

Caution. — I, we, thou, ye, lie, site, they, and who should 
not be used as object complements or as principal words in 
prepositional phrases. 

Caution. — Me, us, thee, him, her, them, and whom 

should not be used as subjects or as attribute complements 
of sentences. 

DIRECTION.— Use the nominative and the objective forms given 
above, to fill the folio-wing- blanks, and explain the office of each word 
supplied :— 

22. did you see ? 

23. did you ask for ? 

24. This must remain a secret between and „ 

25. was referred to ? 

26. did he refer to ? 

27. — they restored to office. 

28. they hanged. 

29. Was it or ? 

30. It must have been . 

31. Who was there ? and ~ * 

32. Who spoke ? . 

33. could she have meant ? 



Nouns as Adjective Modifiers. 97 



34 could have been meant ? 

35. She invited you and . 

36. You and were invited. 

37. Will you go with papa and ? 

To the Teacher,— We suggest that, after filling the blanks above, the pupils 
repeat the expressions aloud till the correct form becomes familiar. 

To familiarize pupils with nominative forms after the verb be, they maybe allowed 
to repeat rapidly in succession such forms as, It is I, It is we, etc. (using all the nom- 
inative forms except ye) ; Is it I? Is it wet etc. ; It is not I, It is not we, etc. ; 
Is it not It Is it not wet etc. These forms may be repeated with was, may have 
been, might have been, etc. in place of is. 



LESSON LIII. 

NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. 

Introductory. — In " The robin's eggs are blue," robin's tells what 
eggs or whose eggs are spoken of, and is therefore a modifier of eggs. 
Notice that a little mark ( ' ), called an apostrophe, and the letter s 
are added to the word robin to denote the idea of possession. 

In " The robins' eggs are blue," the s is added to robin to denote 
more than one, the apostrophe alone denoting the idea of possession. 

The possessive forms of pronouns are irregular and do not employ 
the apostrophe ; * as, my, our, thy, your, Ms, Tier, its, their, whose. 

In " Webster, the statesman, was born in New Hampshire," states- 
man explains what Webster is meant, and is therefore a modifier of 
Webster. 

Robin's and statesman, like adjectives, modify nouns ; but they are 
names of things, and may be modified by adjectives ; as, " the Ameri- 
can robin's eggs," "Webster, the distinguished statesman." They are 



* The adjective pronouns one and other are exceptions. See p. 297. 
5 



98 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



therefore nouns. They represent two kinds of noun modifiers — the 
Possessive Modifier and the Explanatory Modifier. 



Analysis. 

I. Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I. 

favvrite {Raleigh ) . was beheaded Explanation. — Raleigh is writ- 

\ rf ten on the subject line, because 

\ James i Raleigh and favorite name the 
same person ; but Raleigh is en- 
closed within curves to show that favorite alone is the grammatical, 
or simple, subject. 

Oral Analysis. — (As before.) Elizabeth's, telling whose favorite, 
and Raleigh, telling what favorite, are modifiers of the subject. (As 
before.) Elizabeth'' s favorite, Raleigh, is the modified subject. 

2. An idle brain is the devil's workshop. 

3. Love rules his kingdom without a sword. 

4. Men's opinions vary with their interests. 

5. Caesar gave his daughter Julia in marriage to P )mpey. 

6. Milton, the great English poet, became blind. 

7. ^Esop, the author of " iEsop's Fables," was a slave. 

8. Earth sends up her perpetual hymn of praise to the Creator. 

9. Every day in thy life is a leaf in thy history. 
10. His fate, alas ! was deplorable. 

II. Alexander the Great was educated under the celebrated phi- 
losopher Aristotle. 

Observation Exercises. — Is s in (4) added to men to form the 
plural ? Can you see any reason for using the comma with some of 
the explanatory modifiers above, and not with others ? 

Explain the punctuation of (10). Give reasons for the use of capitals 
in (6), (7), (8), (11). Explain the meaning of (2), (3), (8), (9). Notice 
that love in (3) and earth in (8) are personified. 



Possessive and. Explanatory Modifiers— Construction. 99 



LESSON LIV. 

POSSESSIVE AND EXPLANATORY MODIFIERS-CON- 
STRUCTION. 

He-member that ( 's ) and ( 9 ) are the possessive signs, ( ' ) 
being used when s has been added to denote more than 
one, (/s) in other cases. 

DIRECTION.— Copy the following-, and note the use of the possess^ 
ive sign :— 

The lady's fan ; the girl's bonnet ; a dollar's worth ; Burns's poems ; 
Brown & Co.'s business ; a day's work ; men's clothing ; children's 
toys ; those girls' dresses ; ladies' calls ; three years' interest ; five dol- 
lars' worth. 

DIRECTION.— "Make possessive modifiers of the following- words, 
and join them to appropriate nouns :— 

Woman, women ; mouse, mice ; buffalo, buffaloes ; fairy, fairies ; 
hero, heroes ; baby, babies ; calf, calves. 

Caution.— Do not use ('s)-oy (') with the pronouns its, 
his, ours, yours, hers, theirs. 

The relation of possession may be expressed by of; as, 
" the robin's eggs " , = (i the eggs of the robin." 

DIRECTION.— Chang-e the following- possessive nouns into equiva- 
lent phrases, and use these in sentences :— 

The earth's surface ; Arnold's treason ; 
Cabot's voyage ; the moon's light. 

DIRECTION.— improve the following- expressions toy using- in each 
both ways of denoting- possession :— 

The elephant's tusks' value ; George's brother's friend's home ; my 
uncle's partner's sisters ; the mane of the horse of my father. 



1Q0 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Caution.— When a group of words may be treated as a 
compound name, the possessive sign is added to the last 
word ; as, 

Clark and Maynard's office ; /. J. Little & Co.'s printing-house ; 
Alexander the Great's tutor. 

DIRECTION.— Make possessive modifiers of the following: :— 

William the Conqueror ; Duke of York ; Houghton, Mifflin, and 
Company. 

You have learned that some pronouns have three distinct- 
ive forms to denote their office in the sentence, and that 
nouns have one such form. Grammarians call these forms 
cases; so we have the nominative case, the possessive 
case, and the objective case.* 

COMMA— RULE.— An Explanatory Modifier, when it does 
not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it, is set off 
by the comma. 

Explanation. — " Webster the distinguished statesman was con- 
founded with Webster the great lexicographer" The name Webster is> 
here restricted by the italicized words. The explanatory modifier tells, 
in each case, ivhich Webster is meant. Omit these explanatory terms, 
and see how necessary they are to the sense. 

" Daniel Webster, the distinguished statesman, died in 1852." Here 
the explanatory term does not restrict, or limit, the application of the 
preceding name ; it simply adds information. 

In such expressions as "I myself" "we boys" the explanatory term 
combines so closely with the word explained that no comma is allowed. 

* These terms are applied to the office also, even whea the distinctive form is wanting. 



Participles. 1QJ 



DIRECTION.— Give reasons for the use or the omission of commas 
in the following" sentences :— 

1. The poet Milton became blind. 

2. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was a Spaniard. 

3. My brother Henry and my brother George belong to a boat club. 

4. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, was cruel in his treatment of 
Montezuma. 

DIRECTION.— Copy the following-, use commas where needed, and 
give reasons :— 

5. The poet Spenser lived in the reign of Elizabeth. 

6. The author of * ' Robinson Crusoe " Daniel Defoe was the son of 
a butcher. 

7. My son Joseph has entered college. 

8. He himself could not go. 

9. Mecca a city in Arabia is sacred in the eyes of Mohammedans. 
10. The Franks a warlike people of Germany gave their name to 

France. 

DIRECTION.— Compose sentences containing* the following- expres- 
sions as explanatory modifiers :— 

A useful metal ; the capital of Turkey ; the great English poets ; 
the hermit. 



LESSON LV. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Introductory. — What two things must every complete predicate do ? 
(See Less. XLIX.) Why is " grass growing " not a sentence ? 

(a) The bird singing so sweetly is entertaining his mate. 

(b) The bird delights in pouring out his rich notes. 

What words in the two sentences above express action without assert* 



J 02 The Sentence and the Parts of Speecn, 



ing ? Which one of these is joined, like an adjective, to a nuiin to 
point out and describe the thing named ? Which follows a preposition 
and names an action, like a noun ? 

One of these words is partly an adjective and partly a verb, the other 
is partly a noun and partly a verb, — so we call them Participles.* 
We class them with verbs, although they do not assert. 



Analysis. 

1. Hearing a step, I turned. 

I turned Explanation. — The line standing for the participle 

\& is broken ; one part slants to represent the adjective 

y-ing | step nature of the participle, and the other is horizontal 

v to represent its verbal nature. 

Oral Analysis. — The phrase hearing a step f is a modifier of the sub- 
ject ; hearing is the principal word, and step is its object complement; 
step is modified by a. 

2. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use. 

3. The spinal marrow, proceeding from the brain, extends down- 
ward through the back-bone. 

4 Wealth acquired dishonestly will prove a curse. 

5. Burgoyne, having been surrounded \ at Saratoga, surrendered to 
Gen. Gates. 

6. Washington, having crossed the Delaware, attacked the Hessians 
stationed at Trenton. 

7. Pocahontas was married to an Englishman named John Rolfe. 

8. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, sailing under a commission 
from Henry VII. of England, discovered the continent of America. 

* Lat. pars, a pari, and capere, to take. 

+ Logically, or in sense, hearing a step modifies the predicate also. I turned when 
or because I heard a step. 
I Having been surrounded is the participle. 



Infinitives. 103 



9. We receive good by doing good. 
We , receive , good Explanation.— The line representing the 

participle here is broken ; the first part 




?ng , good represents the participle as a noun, and 
the other as a verb. (Nouns and verbs are 
both written on horizontal lines.) 

Oral Analysis. — The phrase by doing good is a modifier of the pred- 
icate ; by introduces the phrase : the principal word is doing, which is 
completed by the noun good. 

10. The Coliseum was once capable of seating ninety thousand 
persons. 

11. Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and 
vigorously. 

12. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering* without having 
suffered. 

LESSON LVI. 

INFINITIVES. 

Introductory. — There is another form of the verb that cannot be 
the predicate of a sentence. 

In " I came to see you," see, like the participle, lacks the asserting 
power — "I to see" asserts nothing. See, following the preposition to, 
names the act and is completed by you, and so does duty as a noun and 
as a verb. 

In office, this word is like the second kind of participle treated in the 
preceding Lesson. It differs from this participle in form and in fol- 
lowing only the preposition to. " Came to see "= " came for seeing." 

As this form of the verb names the action in a general way, without 
limiting it to a subject, we call it the Infinitive, f and class it with 
verbs. 

* Suffering is here a noun. t Lat. irtftnitus, without limit. 



204 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



The infinitive phrase may be used as an adjective, an advert), or a 

noun ; as, " The time to act has come ; " "I came not here to talk; * 
" To lie is base." " 



Analysis. 

1. The hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams. 

Oral Analysis. — To intro- 
hot-house , is v trap -, , , , , 7 . 

i h- — ^ v r r duces the phrase, catch is 



T 



\s the principal word, and sun- 

\ eca6h i °™ hea ™ beams is the object com- 
plement of catch. 



2. A desire to excel leads to eminence. 

3. Dr. Franklin was sent to France to solicit aid for the Colonies. 

4. Richelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and 
decision of character. 

5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race. 

6. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 

7. To be good is to be great. 

V^ \ Explanation. ■ — The diagram of the 

■ < 7°°^ \ be - N great phrase subject is drawn above the sub- 
ject line, on which it is made to rest by 



A 



"^ means of a support. All that stands on 

the subject line is regarded as the subject. A similar explanation 
applies to the phrase complement. 

Oral Analysis — The phrase to be good is the subject; is' is the 
predicate ; the phrase to be great is the attribute complement. The 
first phrase is introduced by to, the principal word is the infinitive be, 
and good is the attribute complement of be — etc. 

Remark. — To, in each of these phrases, shows no relation ; it serves 
merely to introduce. The complements good and great are adjectives 
used abstractly, having no noun to relate to. 



Participles and Infinitives— Const ruction. 205 



8. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 

9. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible. 

10. We should learn to govern ourselves. 

11. It is easy to find fault. 

v Explanation. — The infinitive phrase to 

find i fault find fault explains the subject it. Read 

the sentence without it, and you will see 
4-1 — - — n easy — the real nature of the phrase. This use of 



*( s < 



it as a substitute for the real subject is a very common idiom of our 
language. It allows the real subject to follow the verb, and thus gives 
the sentence balance of parts. 

12. It is not all of life to live. 

13. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 

14. It is not the way to argue down a vice to tell lies about it. 



LESSON LVII. 

PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES-CONSTRUCTION. 

4 

Observation Exercises. — Which of the participles in the first eight 
sentences of Less. LV. are, with the words belonging to them, set off 
by the comma? Try to find a reason why these should be set off and 
the others not. 

COMMA— KULE.— The Participle used as an adjective modi- 
fier, with the words belonging to it, is set off by the comma unless 
restrictive. 

Explanation. — In "A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me 
with a song," lighting describes without restricting. In "The bird 
sitting on the ivall is a wren," sitting restricts — limits the application of 
bird to a particular bird. (See Explanation of Rule, Less. LIV.) 

Caution.— In using a participle be careful to leave no 
doubt as to what you intend it to modify. 
5* 



^Qg The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



DIRECTION.— Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate 
if necessary, giving" reasons for all changes :— 

1. A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a 
small family containing all the improvements. 

2. The town contains fifty houses and five hundred inhabitants built 
of brick. 

8. We saw a marble bust of Sir Walter fecott entering the vestibule. 

4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in 
gnawing an acorn we espied a squirrel. 

5. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent 
gentleman suffering, from cold and hunger. 

DIRECTION.— Recast these sentences, making* the reference of the 
participle clear, and punctuate if necessary :— 

Example. — (i Climbing to the top of the hill the distant town was 
seen." Here climbing appears to relate to town. It should be, 
" Climbing to the top of the hill, we saw the distant town." 

6. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo. 

7. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well. 

8. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock. 

DIRECTION.— Chang-e the infinitives in the following* sentences 
into participles, and the participles into infinitives :— 

Remark. — Notice that to, the only preposition used with the infini- 
tive, is changed to toward, for, of, at, in, or on, when the infinitive is 
changed to a participle. 

9. I am inclined to believe it. 14. There is a time to laugh. 

10. I am ashamed to be seen there. 15. I rejoice to hear it. 

11. She will be grieved to hear it. 16. You are prompt to obey. 

12. They trembled to hear such 17. They delight to do it. 

words. 18. I am surprised at seeing you. 

13. It will serve for amusing the 19. Stones are used in ballasting 

children. vessels. 



The Past .Tense and the Past Participle Distinguished. ^Q^ 



DIRECTION,— Vary the following' sentences as in the Example :— 

Example. — Rising early is healthful. To rise early is healthful. 
It is healthful to rise early. For one to rise early is healthful. 

20. Reading good books is profitable. 23. Indorsing another's paper is 

21. Equivocating is disgraceful. dangerous. 

22. Slandering is base. 24. Swearing is sinful. 

DIRECTION.— Write sentences illustrating the two kinds of parti- 
ciples and the three uses of the infinitive phrase. 



LESSON LVIII. 

THE PAST TENSE AND THE PAST PARTICIPLE DIS- 
TINGUISHED. 

Introductory. — (a) These men acquired wealth dishonestly. 

Acquired here asserts the action as past, and is said to be in the 
Past Tense (tense means time). 

(b) Wealth acquired dishonestly will prove a curse. 

Acquired here assumes the action as completed, and is called a Past 
Participle. 

The past tense and the past participle of most verbs are the same in 
form, both being made by adding ed to the simple verb (or Present 
Tense) ; as, acquire (Present Tense), acquir + ed * (Past Tense), ac- 
quir + ed (Past Participle). 

Such verbs as form these two parts by adding ed are called Regular ; 
all others are called Irregular (see examples below). 



* Final e is dropped when ed is added (see Rule, p. 318). 



108 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Caution. — When the past tense and the past participle 
differ in form, they are often confounded in use. 

Examples.— I done it (incorrect) ; 
I did it (correct). 
I seen him (incorrect) ; 
I saw him (correct). 

DIRECTION. -Repeat rapidly in succession oral sentences made by 
putting- a subject before, and an object complement after, each of the 
past tense forms in the following" list :— 

DIRECTION.— Pronounce rapidly and distinctly the compound 
verbs made by placing" in succession have, had, is, and was before 
each of the past participles in the following" list :— 

DIRECTION.— Make sentences using" seen, done, begun, chosen, and 
spoken as adjective modifiers. (See the first eight sentences for 
analysis, Less. I/V.) 

Irregular Verbs. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


1, Beat, 


beat, 


beaten. 


2. Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


3. Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


4. Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


5. Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


6. Do, 


did, 


done- 


7. Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


8. Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


9. Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


10. Give, 


gave, 


given. 


11. Know, 


knew, 


known. 


12. Ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


13. Ring, 


rang (or rung), 


rung. 



Past Tense and. Past Participle— Continued. 



109 



14. See, 


saw, 


seen. 


15. Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


16. Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


17. Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


18. Take, 


took, 


taken. 


19. Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


20. Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


21. Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


22. Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



LESSON LIX. 

PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE-CONTINUED. 

Caution. — The past tense is always an asserting, or predi- 
cate, word ; the past participle never asserts, but is used 
as an adjective modifier or as the completing word of a 
compound verb. 

DIRECTION.— Fill each of the foUowing: blanks with the past tense 
or the past participle of the irregular verb corresponding' in numbei 
(see Less. LVIII.), and give the reason for your choice :— 

1. The poor animal was'(l) unmercifully. 

2. We have (1) you in every game. 

3. The work (2) yesterday should have been (2) earlier. 

4. I (2) the work in the morning. 

5. The boat was (19) from its fastenings, (8) against the wharf, and 
badly (4). 

6. The horse (12) by the officer (5) to carry the message had been 
(18) from the enemy. 

7. Having (6) it frequently, we (6) it easily. 

8. The wind had (3) hard during the night and had (15) the fruit to 
the ground. 



HO The Sentence and the Parts of Speeeh. 



9. A word hastily (16) has often (10) great pain. 

10. We (14) the letters (22) by Carlyle to Emerson. 

11. He was nearly (9). 

12. Have you (13) the bell ? 

13. The expensive jewelry (21) by the prisoner was bought with 
money (17) from his employer. 

DIRECTION.— Repeat rapidly in succession sentences made by 
putting subjects before the following- past tense forms :— 

DIRECTION.— Repeat the compound verbs made by putting* have 
and had before the following* past participles :— 

Irregular Verbs— Continued. 

Present. Past. Past Participle. 

23. Come, came, come. 

24. Fall, fell, fallen. 

25. Fly, new, flown. 

26. Go, went, gone. 

27. Grow, grew, grown. 

28. Rise, rose, risen. 

29. Run, ran, run. 

30. Sing, sang (or sung), sung. 

D IM ECTION.— Fill each of the following* blanks with the past tense 
or the past participle of the irregular verb corresponding in number 
(see list above), and give the reason for your choice :— 

14. Empires have (28) and (24). 

15. Another day has (23) and (26). 

16. He might have (30) for us. 

17. The birds must have (27) too large for their nest and (25) away. 

18. He (23) near me and then (29) away. 

DIRECTION.— After being* certain that the blanks in the eig-hteen 
sentences above are correctly filled, read these sentences till you have 
overcome any tendency to use the wrong* form. 

DIRECTION.— Make sentences in which did and saw shall be cor- 



Verbs Distinguished. 21| 



rectly used. Repeat these orally till you have overcome any tendency 
to use done and seen as asserting, or predicate, words. 

Caution.— Blow ed, drawed (or drug), growed, knowed, 
throwed, dasnH, dove, Jiet, aint, Jiaint, and warnt are incor- 
rect verb-forms wherever used. 

DIRECTION.— Correct the following- as indicated, and repeat the 
correct forms till they are perfectly familiar :- 



1. The wind ■■ bio wod - furiously. 
/zzfaztjs* 2. They drawod him through the mud. 

s^zd&UW 3. You have , growod stout. 

^rfaz&w 4. I - knowed him at the first glance. 

,«*&W ^aaa^ 5 - He ^©¥e- in and -4»g- me out. 

6. We thro wod it out of the window. 



^ 



•...- 



7. I was overfeed and daon't sit down. 



To the Teacher.— These exercises on the use of the past tense and the past paiv 
ticiple should be varied, and reviewed again and again. The occasional correction 
of the errors that occur in the school-room is not sufficient to cure bad habits. 
The ear and tne vocal organs need much discipline. 



LESSON LX. 

VERBS DISTINGUISHED. 

Lay and Lie ; Set and Sit. 
Present. Past. Past Participle. 

Lay, laid, laid. 

Lie, lay, lain. 

Set, set, set. 

Sit, sat, sat. 



H2 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



DIRECTION.— Determine the meaning of these four verbs from 
their use in the following- sentences, and then repeat the sentences 
aloud till there is no tendency to use the wrong* verb :— 

1. Lay down your pen. 8. Sit down and rest. 

2. Lie down, Rover. 9. I then set it down. 

3. I laid down my pen. 10. I sat down and rested. 

4. The dog then lay down. 11. I have set it down. 

5. I have laid down my pen. 12. I have sat down. 

6. The dog has lain down. 13. My work was laid aside. 

7. Set the pail down. 14. I was lying down. 

15. The trap was set by the river. 

16. I was sitting by the river. 

17. The garment sits well. 

18. The hen sits on her eggs. 

19. He came in and lay down. 

20. The Mediterranean lies between Europe and Africa. 

Remarks. — Notice that we may speak of laying something or setting 
something, or may say that something is laid or is set ; but we cannot 
speak of lying or sitting something, or of something being lain or sat. 

Lay, the present of the first verb, and lay, the past of lie, may easily 
be distinguished by the difference in meaning and in the time ex- 
pressed. 

DIRECTION.— "Write sentences in which the following* verbs shall 
be correctly used :— 

Lays, lies, laying, lying, sets, sits, 

setting, sitting, will set, will sit, 

will lay, will lie, was laid, 

has been laid, have lain, may have lain, 

are set, may have been set, had sat, 

might have sat. 
Remark. — Set, in some of its meanings, is used without an ob- 
ject ; as, 

(a) The sun set. 

(b) He set out on his journey. 



Arrangement. 113 



To the Teacher,— To overcome the very common habit of confounding the forms 
of lay and lie, set and sit, the pupils may read their own sentences, which may be 
corrected by the class. The papers may then be exchanged, and read again and again. 
Some of the best sentences, or sentences most profitable for repetition, may be put 
on the board for concert exercises. Let the meaning and the construction of these 
words be thoroughly understood. 



LESSON LXI. 

ARRANGEMENT. 

DIRECTION.— Tell the office of each modifier in the following- sen- 
tences, and note its position with reference to the word modified and 
With reference to associated modifiers :— 

1. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. 

2. William's sister Mary is an excellent musician. 

3. Everything suddenly appeared so strangely bright. 

4. We saw it distinctly. 

5. We had often been there. 

6. Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo. 

Observation Exercises. — The words and the phrases in the sen- 
tences above stand in their Natural Order. 

From (1) and (2) determine the "natural order" of the subject, predi- 
cate, and complement. From (2) determine the natural order of a 
possessive modifier, of an explanatory modifier, and of an adjective. 
From (3), (4), and (5), determine the several positions of an adverb 
joined to a verb. Determine from (3) the position of an adverb modi- 
fying an adjective or another adverb. Determine from (6) and (1) the 
natural order of a phrase. 

In expressing strong feeling, the force or importance of 
words is often increased by placing them out of their nat- 
ural order. Words so placed are said to be transposed, 



114 Tlie Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



DIRECTION.— Point out the transposed words and phrases in the 
following* sentences ; explain their office, and the effect of the trans- 
position :— 

1. Victories, indeed, they were. 6. A mighty man is he. 

2. Down came the masts. 7. That gale I well remember. 

3. Here stands the man. 8. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 

4. Doubtful seemed the battle. 9. Blood-red became the sun. 

5. Wide open stood the doors. 10. Louder waxed the applause. 

11. Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong. 

12. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

13. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 

14. So died the great Columbus of the skies. 

15. JEneas did, from the flames of Troy, upon his shoulders, the old 
Anchises bear. 

16. Such a heart in the breast of my people beats. 

17. The great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared. 

18. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in 
school, the most difficult and valuable. 

Remark. — Notice that the beginning and the end of the sentence are 
the places of greatest emphasis. See whether this remark will apply 
to the last four sentences above. 

DIRECTION.— Read the following 1 sentences in the transposed 
order, and explain the nature and the effect of the change :— 

19. He could not avoid it. 22. He ended his tale here. 

20. He would not escape. 23. It stands written so. 

21. I must go. 24. She seemed young and sad. 

25. I will make one more effort to save you. 

26. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 

27. I came into the world helpless. 

28. A sincere word was never utterly lost. 

29. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin. 



Arrangement. 115 



Interrogative Sentences. 



Observation Exercises. — When the interrogative word is subject 
or a modifier of it, is the order natural, or transposed ? See (30) and 
(31) below. 

When the interrogative word is object or attribute complement, or a 
modifier of either, what is the order ? See (32), (33), and (34). 

When the interrogative word is an adverb, what is the order ? See 
(35) and (36). 

When there is no interrogative word, what is the order ? See (37) 
and (38). 

30. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence ? 

31. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico ? 

32. Whom did you see ? 

33. What is poetry ? 

34. Which course will you choose ? 

35. Why are the days shorter in winter ? 

36. When was America discovered ? 

37. Were you there ? 

38. Has the North Pole been reached ? 

Composition. 

To the Teacher.— -We suggest exercises in composition here similar to those 
proposed on p. 75. 

Let the selections be made with reference to a full discussion of all that has been 
taught concerning the arrangement of the parts of a simple sentence. 

This matter of arrangement, if properly approached, may be made intensely inter* 
esting and profitable. 

Additional Exercises in Analysis. 

A lesson in analysis may be selected from the exercises above. 



1_XQ The Sentence and. the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON LX1I. 

REVIEW. 



To the Teacher.— If the pupils have not done the preceding work very thoroughly, 
this Lesson should be divided. 

What is an object complement ? Illustrate. Illustrate and explain 
a compound complement. What is a modified complement ? 

What is an attribute complement ? Illustrate and explain fully. 
How do you determine in doubtful cases whether an adjective comple- 
ment, or an adverb modifier, is needed ? Illustrate. 

Give the eight nominative forms. What two uses have they ? Give 
the seven objective forms. What two uses have they ? Show what 
common errors are to be avoided in the use of these forms. 

In what two ways may nouns be used as adjective modifiers ? Illus- 
trate. How is the possessive form of nouns made ? Illustrate. Men- 
tion another way of denoting possession. Show how this may be made 
useful. Show how to form the possessive of a group of words that 
may be treated as a compound. Is the apostrophe used to make the 
possessive form of pronouns ? 

How many distinctive forms have some pronouns to denote their 
office in the sentence ? How many have nouns ? What do grammari- 
ans call these forms ? Give and illustrate the Eule for the punctuation 
of explanatory modifiers. 

How does a participle differ from a predicate verb ? Illustrate. 
How does an infinitive differ from a predicate verb ? Illustrate. How 
does an infinitive differ from a participle used like a noun ? Give and 
illustrate the Rule for the punctuation of participles. Illustrate the 
Caution in regard to the use of participles. 

How are the past tense and the past participle formed when the verb 
is regular ? Give examples of irregular verbs. How do the past tense 
and the past participle differ in use ? Illustrate. Illustrate the uses 
of lay and lie, set and sit. 



The Complex Sentence. J^y 



LESSON LXIII. 

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

The Adjective Clause. 

Introductory. — Notice that in the following sentences the three ital- 
icized expressions denote the same quality and perform the same 
office. 

(a) Wise men are honored. 

(b) Men of wisdom are honored. 

(c) Men that are wise are honored. 

You learned in Lesson XXXVII. that an adjective may be expanded 
into a phrase, and you find in (c) above that it may be expanded into 
an expression that, like a sentence, contains a subject and a predicate. 

" Men that are wise are honored " may be divided into two parts, or 
Clauses, each containing a subject and a predicate. That are wise, 
performing the office of a single word, we call the Dependent Clause ; 
and Men are honored we call the Independent Clause. These 
clauses together form a Complex Sentence. 

A dependent clause used to modify a noun or a pronoun is called an 
Adjective Clause. 

The pronoun that here stands for men. Let us exchange it for men, 
and see whether anything is lost. " Men — men are wise — are honored." 
We find that the clauses have lost all connection. We therefore con- 
clude that the word that stands for mm' and also connects the 
clauses and brings them into close relation. Such pronouns are called 
Relative Pronouns. 

Who, which, and what are also relative pronouns. 



US Tne Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Analysis. 

1. They that touch pitch will be defiled. 

They j will be defiled Explanation. —The relative importance 

of the two clauses is shown by their posi- 
tion, by their connection, and by the differ- 
that \^ touch } pitch ence . n fche ghading Qf the lines< The pro _ 

noun that is written on the subject line of the dependent clause. That 
performs the office of a conjunction also. This office is shown by the 
dotted line. As modifiers are joined by slanting lines to the words 
they modify, you learn from this diagram that that touch pitch is a 
modifier of they. 

Oral Analysis. — This is a complex sentence, because it consists of an 
independent clause and a dependent clause. They ivill be defiled is 
the independent clause, and that touch pitch is the dependent. That 
touch pitch is a modifier of they, because it limits its meaning. The de- 
pendent clause is connected by its subject that to they. 

2. Man is the only animal that laughs and weeps. 

3. Animals that have a backbone are called vertebrates. 

4. The power that brings a pin to the ground holds the earth in its 
orbit. 

5. The lever which moves the world of mind is the printing-press. 

I found i place 6. I found the place to which you re- 

\£ \ f erred. 

7. The spirit in which we act is the 
you referred \ L 

' \ \ . highest matter. 

V , . A * 8. Attention is the stuff that memorv 

\ which \ 

^~ is made of. 

9. He who will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled by the 
rock. 



* The phrase of that modifies is made. The relative pronoun that never allows the 
preposition to precede. 



The Adjective Clause— Construction. 119 



10. He did what was right. 

Be , dnl i x Explanation. — The adjective 

clause modifies the omitted word 

thing, or some word whose meaning 
whatX^ was s right ig general Qr indefinite> * 

11. What is false in this world betrays itself in a love of show. 
f 12. Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled. 

13. A depot is a place where stores are deposited. 

depot j is y place Explanation.— The line repre- 

\ \ \ 4 senting where is made up of two 

^. parts ; the upper part represents 

stores f\a re deposited w here as a conjunction connect- 
ing the adjective clause to place, and the lower part represents it as 
an adverb modifying are deposited. As where performs these two 
offices, it may be called a conjunctive adverb. By changing where 
to the equivalent phrase in which, and using the diagram (6), above, 
the double nature of the conjunctive adverb will be seen. 

14. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 



LESSON LXIV. 

THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE-CONSTRUCTION. 

Punctuation, Position, Choice of Relative. 

Introductory. — (a) Use words that are current. 

(b) Words, which are the signs of ideas, may be 
spoken or "written. 

* Many grammarians prefer to treat what was right as a noun clause (see Lesson 
LXVIII.), the object of did. They would treat in the same way clauses introduced ' 
by whoever, tvhatever, whichever. 

t The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject (man or he) of the independent 
clause. 



^[20 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



In {a) the adjective clause limits, or restricts, the application of 
words to a particular kind. In (b) words is not restricted in its appli- 
cation — which are the signs of ideas applies to all words. 

Head the first independent clause, and you will see that the sense is 
not complete — that a large share of the intended meaning of the sen 7 
fence is in the adjective clause. The second independent clause is 
complete in itself, the adjective clause simply adding an explanation 
or description. Which is here nearly equivalent to and they. (See 
Explanations of Rules, Lessons LIV. and LVII.) 



COMMA— RULE.— The Adjective Clause, when not restrict- 
ive, is set off by the comma. 

Caution.— The adjective clause should be placed as near 
as possible to the word it modifies. 

DIRECTION.- Correct the following- errors of position, and, apply- 
ing the tests suggested above, insert the comma where needed :— 

Example. — Bands of robbers infest some countries who attack trav- 
elers in the open day (incorrect). 

Some countries are infested with bands of robbers, who attack trav- 
elers in the open day (correct). 

1. Herodotus has been called the father of history from whom we 
have an account of the Persian war. 

2. Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple. 

3. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm 
which we had for breakfast. 

4. The letter was delayed in St. Louis that you sent from Chicago. 

Caution— The relative who should represent persons ; 
which, animals and things ; that, persons, animals, and 
things. 



The Adjective Clause— Const ruction. 121 



DIRECTION.— Correct the following' errors :— 

5. I have a dog who runs to meet me, 

6. The boy which I met was lame. 

7. Those which live in glass houses must not throw stones. 

Caution. — In a restrictive clause, that is generally pre- 
ferred when it will sound as well as who or which. When 
the clause is not restrictive, who or which is generally pre- 
ferred to that. 

Participle Phrases expanded into Clauses. 

DIRECTION.— Expand each of the following" participle phrases 
into an adjective clause, observing* carefully the Cautions and the 
directions for punctuation given above :— 

Example. — The first colonial assembly eve?* convened in America 
was held at Jamestown. 

The first colonial assembly that was ever convened in America was 
held at Jamestown. 

8. Boys learning to swim should take lessons of the frog. 

9. France, anciently called Gaul, derived its name from the Franks, 
a warlike people of German origin. 

10. Adopt a plan of life founded on religion and virtue. 

11. The " Sketch Book," containing "Rip Van Winkle" and the 
"Legend of Sleepy Hollow," raised Irving to the highest rank of 
American authors. 

12. The vessels carrying blood from the heart are called arteries. 

13. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish. 

14. Here comes his body, mourned by Mark Antony. 

15. Tennyson, made poet-laureate after the death of Wordsworth, 
was raised to the peerage in 1883. • 

16. In 1837 Hawthorne issued a volume entitled " Twice-told Tales." 

17. Rivers rising west of the Rocky Mountains flow into the Pacific* 

6 



222 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Observation Exercises. — Explain fully why the participle phrases 
above are, or are not, set off. (See Less. LVIL and introduction 
above.) In which of the sentences above would you prefer the adjec- 
tive phrase to the adjective clause ? In which do you find an explana- 
tory modifier ? Expand this modifier into a clause and explain the 
punctuation. 

LESSON LXV. 

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE-CONSTRUCTION-CONTINUED. 

Sentences Combined by the aid of Relatives. 

DIRECTION.— "By the aid of a relative pronoun combine the two 
statements in each of the following 1 groups into one sentence, observ- 
ing; carefully the instruction of the preceding Lesson :— 

Example. — History may be called a narrative of past events. In 
these events men have been concerned. == 

History may be called a narrative of past events in which men have 
been concerned. 

Questions as tests. — Does history tell what has happened con- 
cerning animals, plants, rocks, etc. ? Is the first statement in the 
Example strictly true and complete in itself ? Does the adjective 
clause restrict the meaning of " events" to a particular sense ? 

Put that in place of " which," carry "in" to the end of the sentence, 
and decide whether it would sound as well. How do your conclusions 
agree with what is said in the first sentence of the last Caution in the 
preceding Lesson ? 

1. Lead-pencils contain, instead of lead, graphite. Graphite is a 
form of carbon. 

2. Birds have lungs. The lungs of birds communicate with air-sacs 
in various parts of the body. 

3. Fishes are vertebrate animals. By means of gills they breathe 
the air dissolved in water. 



The Adverb Clause. ^£3 



4. Health should be preserved. Health is God's gift. 

5. He preaches sublimely. He lives a righteous life. 

6. They build too low. They build beneath the stars. 

7. He lives most. He thinks most. 

8. God helps them. They help themselves. 

9. The man blushes. He is not quite a brute. 

10. John Bunyan became a famous author. He was once a tinker. 

11. Victoria became queen on the death of her uncle, William IV. 
She is the granddaughter of George III. 

12. In 1565 the Spaniards founded St. Augustine. St. Augustine 
is the oldest town in the United States. 

Observation Exercises. — Which of the above statements can be 
united as well, or better, by changing one into an explanatory modi- 
fier ? Which, by changing one into a participle phrase ? Explain the 
punctuation of such phrases. 

Additional Exercises in Analysis. 

To the Teacher, — Examples for analysis may be selected from the two preceding 
Lessons. Pupils may profitably analyze the sentences they construct. 



LESSON LXVI. 

THE ADVERB CLAUSE. 

Introductory. — (a) We started early. 

(b) We started at sunrise. 

(c) We started when the sun rose. 

The adverb early is here expanded into an adverb phrase, and then 
into an Adverb Clause. Each of these italicized expressions is, in 
office, an adverb of time modifying started. 

(d) He stood here. 

(e) He stood in this place. 
(/) He stood where I am 9 



124: Tile Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Where I am is an adverb clause of place, equivalent to the phrase in 
this place or to the adverb here, 

(g) He is taller than I. 

(h) He lived as the fool lives. 

(i) I will go because you desire it. 

(J) I will go if you desire it. 

These italicized expressions illustrate other offices of the adverb 
clause. The first — than I am tall (am tall is understood) — modifies 
taller and limits the degree of the quality ; the second modifies lived 
and tells the manner of living ; the third modifies go and tells the 
cause of my going ; the fourth tells on what condition I will go. 



Analysis. 

1. When pleasure calls, we listen. 

we . listen Explanation. — When modifies both listen and 

\> calls, denoting that the two actions take place at 

\% the same time. It also connects pleasure calls, as 

pleasure j\ calls an a d V erb modifier, to listen. The offices of the 
conjunctive adverb when may be better understood by expanding it 
into two phrases, thus : We listen at the time at which pleasure calls. 
At the time modifies listen, at ivhich modifies calls, and which con- 
nects. 

The line representing when is made up of three parts to picture these 
three offices. The part representing it as a modifier of calls is, for con- 
venience, placed above its principal line instead of below it. 

2. While Louis XIV. reigned, Europe was at war. 

3. Printing was unknown when Homer wrote the Iliad. 

4. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy 
dies within me. 

5. Where the bee sacks honey, the spider sucks poison. 

6. The throne of Philip trembles while Demosthenes speaks. 

7. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 



The Adverb Clause— Construction. ^25 



8. The ground is wet because it has rained. 

ground . is \ wet 

\^ \ & Explanation. — Because, being a mere 

^ conjunction, stands on a line dotted through- 

_ it *\has rained ou ^* 

9. We keep the pores of the skin open, for through them the blood 
throws off its impurities. 

10. Since the breath contains poisonous carbonic acid, wise people 
ventilate their sleeping-rooms. 

11. * Should the calls of hunger be neglected, the fat of the body is 
thrown into the grate to feed the furnace. 



LESSON LXVI I. 

THE ADVERB CLAUSE-CONSTRUCTION. 
Punctuation, Arrangement, Expansion, Contraction. 

Introductory. — Read carefully the "introductory" hints, Less* 
LXIV. 

(a) I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad. 

(b) Glass bends easily when it is red-hot. 

The punctuation of (a) shows that the speaker does not wish to make 
the time of meeting a prominent or essential part of what he has to 
say. The adverb clause simply gives additional information. 

The omission of the comma in (b) shows that glass bends easily is 
not offered as a general statement, that the action is restricted to a 
certain time or condition. When it is red-hot is essential to the in- 
tended meaning. 

If (a) were an answer to the question, When did you meet him ? the 

* Place the subject of the first clause in its natural order, and you will see what 
conjunction is omitted. 



126 Trie Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



comma would not be needed. Why ? You see that the sense may be 
varied by the use or the omission of the comma. 

(c) When it is red-hot, glass bends easily. 

(d) Glass, when it is red-hot, bends easily. 

Examine (b), (c), and (d), and determine what different positions the 
adverb clause may take. How does the arrangement affect the punc- 
tuation ? 



COMMA— RULE. — An Adverb Clause is set off by the comma 
unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies. 

The adverb clause may stand before the independent 
clause, between the parts of it, or after it. 

DIRECTION.— Expand the following- italicized phrases into equiv- 
alent adverb clauses, note the different positions possible for these 
clauses, determine which position you prefer, and attend carefully to 
the punctuation :— 

Example. — "Seeing me, he stopped " = " When he saw me, he 
stopped." (See second foot-note, p. 102.) 

1. The Romans, having conquered the world, were unable to con- 
quer themselves. 

2. Water increases its volume in becoming ice. 

3. Bemoving the shin of a seed, we find two fleshy bodies. 

4. Looking carefully between the two parts of a seed, we find a min- 
iature plant. 

5. The cow, having laid in a supply of food, brings it back into the 
mouth, and chews it at leisure. 

6. We eat to live. 

Example. — We eat to live = We eat that we may live. The adverb 
clause tells for what purpose we eat. 

7. We do not live to eat. 



The Adverb Clause— Construction. 127 



8. The Puritans came to America to obtain religious freedom. 

DIRECTION.— Explain the punctuation of the following" adverb 
clauses, and then contract them into equivalent phrases :— 

9. The Gulf Stream reaches Newfoundland before it crosses the 
Atlantic. 

10. If we use household words, we shall be better understood. 

11. Philip II. built the Armada that he might conquer England. 

12. We are pained when we hear God's name used irreverently. 

13. Criminals are punished that society may be safe. 

DIRECTION.— Contract the following* adverb clauses by simply 
omitting- such words as may easily be supplied :— 

Cxample. — " When you are right, go ahead" = " When right, go 
ahead." 

14. Chevalier Bayard was killed while he was fighting for Francis I. 

15. Much wealth is corpulence, if it is not disease. 

16. The sun is much larger than the earth is large. 
(Such sentences are not used in the full form.) 

Caution.— An objective form is often used incorrectly for 
the subject of a contracted clause. 

Examples. — You are not so old as me (incorrect) ; 

You are not so old as / (correct). 
1 am taller than him (incorrect) ; 
I am taller than he (correct). 

Equivalent Forms. 

DIRECTION.— Change each, of the following' adverb clauses first to 
an adjective clause, and then to an adjective phrase :— 

Example. — " This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends " == 
"This man, who has no friends, is to be pitied "=" This man, having 
no friends, is to be pitied "=" This man, without friends, is to be 
pitied." 



^28 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



17. A man is to be pitied if he does not care for music. 

18. When a man lacks health, wealth, and friends, he lacks three 
good things. 

Composition. 

To the Teacher.— Exercises in composition similar to those suggested on p. 75 
may here be introduced with excellent effect. Let the selections be made with 
special reference to adjective and adverb clauses, avoiding difficult constructions. As 
far as possible, let phrase modifiers be expanded into clauses and clause modifiers 
contracted into phrases. The advantages and the disadvantages of these different 
forms and their different possible positions, the punctuation, the choice of relatives, 
etc. should be fully discussed. 

Suitable selections for such exercises may be found in readers, histories, or other 
books in the hands of the pupils. 

Additional Exercises in Analysis. 

A valuable lesson in analysis may be selected from the preceding sentences. 



LESSON LXVII I. 

THE NOUN CLAUSE. 

Observation Exercises. — 

(a) Obedience is better than sacrifice. 

(jb) To obey is better than sacrifice. 

(c) That one should obey is better than sacrifice. 

From each of the above sentences get the answer to the question. 
What is better ? Do the expressions obedience, to obey, and that men 
should obey differ in office ? What is the office of each ? 

You see that a noun may be expanded into a phrase or into a 
clause. 

(d) We believe that the world moves, 

(e) Our opinion is, that the world moves, 

(/) The fact that the world moves is not denied. 



The Noun Clause. 129 



In which of the preceding sentences is a Noun Clause used as 
attribute complement f In which, as object complement ? In which, as 
explanatory modifier f 



Analysis. 

i 

1. That the earth is round has been proved. 

Oral Analysis. — This is a complex sen- 



earth } is] ground tence> The whole sentence here takes the 

\ I place of an independent clause ; that the 



1 has bem P roved earth is round is the dependent clause. 
The dependent clause is the subject of the sentence ; has been proved 
is the predicate. (As before.) The conjunction that introduces the noun 
clause. 

2. That Julius Caesar invaded Britain is a historic fact. 

3. What have I done ? is asked by the knave and the thief. 

4. Who was the discoverer of America is not yet fully determined 
by historians. 

Explanation. — The noun clause in (3) expresses a direct question ; 
that in (4), an indirect question ; but (3) and (4) are declarative sen- 
tences. 

5. Galileo taught that the earth moves. 

that 

earth I \ moves Explanation.— Here the clause intro- 

% I duced by that is used like a noun, and is 

Jl the object complement of tauqht. 

Galileo , taught , /\ J l * 



6. Plato taught that the soul is immortal. 

7. The world will not anxiously inquire who you are. 

8. It will ask of you, What can you do ? 

9. The principle maintained by the Colonies was, that taxation 
without representation is unjust. 

6* 



230 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



10. Hamlet's exclamation was, " What a piece of work is man ! " 

11. It has been proved that the earth is round. 

that 



earth, is Lround > Explanation.-The grammatical sub- 

\^ ject it has no meaning till explained by 

-^ / 1 \ . , the noun clause. 

It (,x\) . has been proved 

12. The fact that mould, mildew^ and yeast are plants is wonderful. 

DEFINITIONS, 

A Clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and its 
predicate. 

A Dependent Clause is one used as an adjective, an adverb, 
or a noun. 

An Independent Clause is one not dependent on another 
clause. 



LESSON LXIX. 

THE NOUN CLAUSE-CONSTRUCTION. 

Punctuation. 

DIRECTION.— Tell the office of the noun clauses in the following 
sentences, and note carefully all differences in punctuation :— 

1. That- the story of William Tell is a myth is now believed. 

2. We do not doubt that the world moves. 

3. Our conclusion is, that a whale is not a fish. 

4. The statement above, that a whale is not a fish, is scientifically 
correct. 

5. The doctrine that all men are created equal was held by our 
fathers. 

Observation Exercises. — In the examples above, what two kinds of 



The Noun Clause— Construction. 131 



noun clauses are set off by the comma ? Can you find any reason for 
the difference in the punctuation of (4) and (5) ? Is one clause more 
necessary to the sense than the other ? (See Rule and Explanation, 
Less. LIV.) 

COMMA — RULE. — The noun clause used as attribute complement 
is generally set off by the comma. 

Remarks. — The subject clause and the object clause are set off 
when the comma is needed to separate words that might otherwise be 
read in too close connection. (See General Rule, p. 73.) 

For the punctuation of the explanatory clause, see Less. LIY. 

DIRECTION. —Explain the noun clauses in the following: sen- 
tences, and. insert the comma where needed :— 

6. That the whole is equal to the sum of its parts is an axiom. 

7. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a new continent. 

8. The belief of the Sadducees was that there is no resurrection 
of the dead. 

9. This we know that our future depends on our present. 

Arrangement and Punctuation. 

DIRECTION.— Tell the office of the noun clauses in the following 
sentences, and note the arrangement and the punctuation :— 

10. That the world moves, no one doubts. 

11. It is now believed that the story of William Tell is a myth. 

12. The story of William Tell, it is now believed, is a myth. 

Observation Exercises.— Is (10) transposed, or in the natural order? 
What is the effect of this arrangement on the force and on the punc- 
tuation ? 

Compare (11) with (1), and note all differences. Notice that the 
long subject in (1) is hardly balanced by the short predicate. Can you 
see any advantage in the arrangement of (11) ? 

Compare (11) with (12), and note all differences. The independent 



132 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



clause thrown in between the parts of the noun clause is said to be used 
parenthetically. 

A clause used as object complement is sometimes trans- 
posed, and set off by the comma. 

DIRECTION.— Transpose the following" :- 

13. We cannot determine who first invented letters. 

14. No one can tell how this will end. 

By using it as a substitute for the subject clause^ this 
clause may be placed last. 

DIRECTION.- Transpose the following- :— 

15. That a whale cannot breathe under water is a well-known fact. 

16. That the Scotch are an intelligent people is generally acknowl- 
edged. 

The noun clause may be made prominent by introducing 
the independent clause parenthetically. (For example and 
punctuation, see (12) above.) 

DIRECTION.— Rewrite the following and make the independent 
clause parenthetical :— 

17. We believe that the first printing-press in America was set up in 
Mexico in 1536. 

18. It is true that the glorious sun pours down his golden flood as 
cheerily on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace. 

Parenthetical expressions are set off by commas when 
they cause but a slight break ; when the break is more ab- 
rupt, dashes or marks of parenthesis are used. (See (19), 
(20), and (21) below.) 



Noun Clause— Construction— Continued. ^33 



DIRECTION.— Copy and compare the following-, then rewrite (19) 
so as to illustrate the natural and the transposed order of the object 
clause :— 

19. Religion, we must acknowledge, is the noblest of themes for the 
exercise of intellect. 

20. Religion — who can doubt it ? — is the noblest of themes for the 
exercise of intellect. 

21. Religion (who can doubt it ?) is the noblest of themes for the 
exercise of intellect. 



LESSON LXX. 

NOUN CLAUSE-CONSTRUCTION-CONTINUED. 

Contraction. 

DIRECTION.— Make the following complex sentences simple by 
changing- the predicate of each noun clause to a participle, and the 
subject to a possessive :— 

Example.— That he is brave cannot be doubted = His being brave 
cannot be doubted. 

1. That the caterpillar changes to a butterfly is a curious fact. 

2. Everybody admits that Cromwell was a great leader. 

3. The thought that the earth is spinning around at such a rate 

makes us dizzy. 

■41 
DIRECTION.— Contract the following noun clauses to infinitive 

phrases :— 

Example. — That he should vote is the duty of every American citi- 
zen == To vote is the duty of every American citizen. 

4. That we guard our liberty with vigilance is a sacred duty. 

5. Every one desires that he may live long and happily. 

6. The effect of looking upon the sun is, that the eye is blinded. 



134 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Observation Exercises. — Can there be a doubt as to the reference of 
he in (5) ? Is the meaning clear when the clause is changed to a 
phrase ? 

Tell why the comma is, or is not, used in the six sentences above. 

Quotations. 

DIJRJECTIOK — Copy the following-, noting- carefully all capitals 
and punctuation marks :— 

7. Goldsmith says, " Learn the luxury of doing good." 

8. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good. 

9. " The owlet Atheism, hooting at the glorious sun in heaven, 
cries out, ' Where is it ? ^ " 

10. Coleridge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun, and 
asking where it is. 

11. " To read without reflecting," says Burke, "is like eating without 
digesting." 

12. May we not find "sermons in stones and good in everything " ? 

13. There is much meaning in the following quotation : " Books are 
embalmed minds." 

14. We must ask, What are we living for ? 

15. We must ask what we are living for. 

Observation Exercises. — Notice that the writer of (7) has copied 
into his sentence (quoted) the exact language of Goldsmith. The two 
marks like inverted commas and the two marks like apostrophes, which 
inclose this copied passage (quotation), are called Quotation Marks. 

Name all the diiferences between (7) and (8). Is the same thought 
expressed in both ? Which quotation would you call direct ? 
Which, indirect? 

Notice that the whole of (9) is a quotation, and that this quotation 
contains another quotation inclosed within single marks. Notice the 
order of the marks at the end of (9). 

Point out the differences between (9) and (10). In which is a ques- 
tion quoted just as it would be asked ? In which is a question merely 



Noun Clause— Construction— Continued. 135 



referred to ? Which question would you call direct ? Which, indi- 
rect ? Name every difference in the form of these. 

In which of the above sentences is a quotation interrupted by a 
parenthetical clause ? How are the parts marked ? 

Point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself. 
How does it differ from the others as to punctuation and the first 
letter ? 

In (13) a Colon precedes the quotation to show that it is formally 
introduced. 

In (14) a question is introduced without quotation marks. Questions 
that, like this, are introduced without being referred to any particular 
person or persons, are often written without quotation marks. State 
the differences between (14) and (15). 

In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the 
quotation marks ; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order 
is reversed.* Point out illustrations above. 

Sum up what you have learned. 



LESSON LXXI. 

NOUN CLAUSE-CONSTRUCTION-CONTINUED. 

Quotations— Continued. 

QUOTATION MARKS— RULE.— Quotation marks (" ") inclose 
a copied word or passage. Single marks (' 9 ) inclose a quotation 
within a quotation. 

CAPITAL LETTER AND COMMA— RULE.— When a direct quo- 
tation making complete sense, or a direct question, is introduced 
into a sentence, it should be^iii with a capital and should generally 
be set off by the coniina.f 

* So with the exclamation. 

t No comma is u*ed after the interrogation point or the exHamation point- 



136 Tile Sentence and. the Parts of Speecti. 



COLON— RULE.— A quotation formally introduced is preceded 
by the colon, 

DIMJE CTION. —Review carefully the work on Quotations in the 
preceding 1 Lesson, then rewrite the following- sentences, using capi- 
tals and punctuation marks where needed :— 

1. Lowell asks what is so rare as a day in June 

2. What is so rare as a day in June asks Lowell 

3. Lowell asks whether anything so rare as a day in June can be 
named 

4. The ballad of ' Chevy Chase ' stirs the heart like the sound of a 
trumpet said Sir Philip Sidney. 

5. The ballad of ' Chevy Chase ' said Sir Philip Sidney stirs the heart 
like the sound of a trumpet. 

6. What does Wordsworth mean by plain living and high thinking 

7. This curious remark was made by Burke man is an animal that 
cooks his victuals. 

DIM ECTION.— Point out the direct and the indirect questions and 
quotations in Lesson LXVHI., and explain capitals and punctu- 
ation. 

Some Uses of " Were." 

1. I wish he were here. 

2. If he were here, he would assist us. 

Explanation. — Were maybe used with a singular subject in express- 
ing a wish, as in the noun clause above ; also in expressing a supposi- 
tion contrary to the fact, as in the adverb clause above. 

DIRECTIONS.— Write two sentences containing direct quotations 
and two containing direct questions, and then make the quo cations 
and the questions indirect. 

"Write sentences showing how were may be used in the singular. 
Find another illustration in the Introductory hints, Less. LXVII. 

Exercises.— Noun Clauses— Quotations. 

To the Teacher.— Selections written in the colloquial style and containing fre- 
quent quotations and questions maybe taken from the readers, for examination, dis- 



The Compound Sentence. J.37 



eussion, and copying. Noun phrases may be expanded, and noun clauses con- 
tracted, transposed, etc. 

Additional Exercises in Analysis. 

One or two profitable exercises in analysis may be selected from the three preced- 
ing Lessons. Unless the class is somewhat mature, the most difficult of these sen- 
tences should be reserved. 



LESSON LXXII. 

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

(a) War has ceased, and peace has come. 

(b) We eat to live, but we do not live to eat. 

(c) You must take exercise, or you will not grow strong. 

Observation Exercises. — How many clauses in each of the above 
sentences ? Is any one clause used as a principal part or a modifier of 
another ? Are these clauses, then, dependent, or independent f Notice 
their punctuation. 

Which conjunction shows that the second clause continues the line 
of thought begun by the first ? Which shows that two thoughts are in 
contrast? Which presents a choice between two thoughts? Exchange 
places with these conjunctions, and note how the proper relations of 
the thoughts are destroyed. 

Sentences made up of independent clauses are called Compound 
Sentences. 



Analysis. 
1. Light has spread, and bayonets think. 

T . ,. 7 ,7 Explanation. — The clauses are, of equal rank, 

and so the lines on which they stand are shaded 
alike, and the line connecting them is not slant- 
thinJc m g- A s one entire clause is connected with the 
other, the connecting line is drawn between the 
predicates merely for convenience. 



bayonets 



138 The Sentence and. the Parts of Speech. 



Oral Analyss. — This is a compound sentence, because it is made up of 
independent clauses. (Analyze each clause as before.) 

2. The satellites revolve in orbits around the planets, and the plan- 
ets move in orbits around the sun. 

3. The mind is a goodly field, and to sow it with trifles is the worst 
husbandry in the world. 

4. Power works easily, but fretting is a perpetual confession of weak- 
ness. 

5. The lion belongs to the cat tribe, but he cannot climb a tree. 

6. * Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness admirably. 

7. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, nor are they 
extremely warm in summer. 

8. The camel is the ship of the ocean of sand ; the reindeer is the- 
camel of the desert of snow. 

9. Of thy unspoken word thou art master ; thy spoken word is master 
of thee. 

Observation Exercises.— What conjunction could naturally be sup- 
plied in (8) ? — in (9) ? Give reasons for your choice. In (8) a camel is 
called a ship on account of some fancied resemblance. This is a figure 
of speech — a metaphor. Find three other metaphors in the same sen- 
tence. 

Sentences Classified with respect to Form. 

DEFINITIONS. 

A Simple Sentence is one that contains but one subject and 
one predicate, either or both of which may be compound, 

A Complex Sentence is one composed of an independent 
clause and one or more dependent clauses. 

A Compound Sentence is one composed of two or more 
independent clauses. 

* See foot-note, Explanation, p. 77. 



The Compound Sentence— Construction. 139 



LESSON LXXI I I. 

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE-CONSTRUCTION. 

Punctuation. 

DIRECTION.— Copy the following*, and notice the punctuation :— 

1. We must conquer our passions, or our passions will conquer us. 

2. The prodigal robs his heirs ; the miser robs himself. 

8. There is a fierce conflict between good and evil ; but good is in 
the ascendant, and must triumph at last. 

Observation Exercises. — Which of the clauses in the sentences 
above are most closely related or linked together ? Point out two 
clauses that are almost equivalent to two separate statements. De- 
scribe the mark that separates them. This mark, denoting a greater 
degree of separation than the comma, is a Semicolon. 

DIRECTION.— Apply the Rule below to the punctuation of the 
sentences above, and then show that this Rule is illustrated by its 
own punctuation. 

COMMA and SEMICOLON— RULE. —Independent clauses, when 
short and closely connected, are separated by the comma ; but, 
when the clauses are slightly connected, or when they are them- 
selves divided into parts by the comma, the semicolon is used. 

DIRECTION.— Punctuate the following", and give your reasons :— 

4. Wealth may seek us but wisdom must be sought. 

5. The wind and the rain are over the clouds are divided in heaven 
over the green hill flies the inconstant sun. 

6. London is the capital of England Paris, of France Berlin, of 
Germany.* 

* The comma here marks the omission of the words is the capital 



140 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Contraction. 



DIRECTION.— Contract the following sentences by using- the re- 
peated parts but once and uniting the other parts into a compound 
term :— 

DIR ECTION.—In. all the following exercises of this Lesson, attend 
carefully to the punctuation. 

Example. — Time waits for no man, and tide waits for no man = 
Time and tide wait for no man. 

7. Lafayette fought for American independence, and Earon Steuben 
fought for American independence. 

8. The mind knows, the mind feels, and the mind thinks. 

9. The spirit of the Almighty is within us, the spirit of the Al- 
mighty is around us, and the spirit of the Almighty is above us. 

DIRECTION.— Contract the following sentences by simply omit- 
ting from one clause such words as may readily be supplied from the 
other :— 

Example. — He is witty, but he is vulgar = 
He is witty, but vulgar, 

10. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but it should 
not be the web. 

11. It is called so, but it is improperly called so. 

12. William the Silent has been likened to Washington, and he has 
justly been likened to him. 

Equivalent Forms. 

DIRECTION— Change the following compound sentences to com- 
plex sentences without materially changing the sense :— 

Example. — Take care of the minutes, and the hours will take care 
of themselves = 

If you take care of the minutes, the hours will take care of them- 
selves. (Notice that the imperative form is here more spirited and 
emphatic than the conditional.) 



Review. 241 

13. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you. 

14. Govern your passions, or they will govern you. 

15. I heard that you wished to see me, and I lost no time in coming. 

16. He was faithful, and he was rewarded. 

DIRECTION.— Change one of the independent clauses in each of 
these sentences to a dependent clause, and then change the depend- 
ent clause to a participle phrase :— 

Example. — The house was built upon a rock, and ther afore it did 
not fall = 
The house did not fall, because it was built upon a rock = 
The house, being built upon a rock, did not fall. 

17. He found that he could not escape, and so he surrendered. 

18. Our friends heard of our coming, and they hastened to meet us. 

Observation Exercises. — Are embroidery and web (in 10) used with 
their common meaning, or figuratively ? Explain their meaning here. 

Additional Exercises in Analysis. 

To the Teacher. — A lesson in analysis may be made from the preceding Lesson. 



LESSON LXXIV. 

REVIE\ty. 

To the Teacher. — If the pupils have not done the preceding work very thor- 
oughly, this Lesson should be divided. 

Show that a clause may perforin the office of an adjective or of an 
adjective phrase. Explain the two offices of the relative pronoun. 
Show that an adjective clause may be connected by a conjunctive ad' 



242 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



verb. Show the difference between a restrictive and an unrestrictive 
clause. Give the Rule for punctuating the adjective clause. Give and 
illustrate the Caution regarding the place of the adjective clause. 
Give and illustrate the two Cautions regarding the choice of relatives. 
Show how a participle phrase may be expanded into an adjective 
clause. Show how sentences may be combined by the aid of relatives. 

Show that a clause may perform the office of an adverb or of an ad- 
verb phrase. Illustrate and explain the punctuation of adverb clauses. 
Illustrate the different positions of adverb clauses. Show how differ- 
ent kinds of phrases may be expanded into adverb clauses. Illustrate 
different ways of contracting adverb clauses. What error often occurs 
in a contracted adverb clause ? 

Show that a clause may be equivalent to a noun. What is a clause ? 
— a dependent clause ? — an independent clause ? Illustrate and ex- 
plain the punctuation of noun clauses. Show how noun clauses may 
be transposed. Illustrate the punctuation of parenthetical expressions. 
Show how a noun clause may be contracted. 

Give an illustration of a direct quotation ; of an indirect quotation ; 
of a direct question introduced into a sentence ; of an indirect ques- 
tion. Give and explain the Rules that apply to the writing of these 
quotations and questions. 

Show how were may be used with a singular subject. 

Show how independent clauses may be connected. Define the dif- 
ferent kinds of sentences classified as to form. Give and illustrate the 
Rule for punctuating compound sentences. Show how compound sen- 
tences may be contracted. 

What is English grammar ? 

DEFINITION.— English Grammar is the science which 
teaches the forms, uses, and relations of the words of the English 
language. 



Review. 



143 



GENERAL REVIEW, 

To the Teacher. — This scheme will be found very helpful in a general review. 
The pupils snould he ahle to reproduce it, in part or entire, except the Lesson 
'numbers. 

Scheme for the Sentence. 
(The numbers refer to Lessons.) 



Subject. 
Predicate. 

Complements. -< 



Noun or Pronoun (8, 15). 
Phrase (56). 
Clause (68). 



< 
ft 



Verb (8, 19). 
Object. 



( Noun or Pronoun (48). 
< Phrase (56). 
( Clause (68). 



Attribute. 



f Adjective (49). 
J Noun or Pronoun i 
1 Phrase (56). 
[Clause (68). 



Modifiers. 



Connectives. 



Objective. (See Lesson 110.) 

r Adjectives (25, 26). 

Adverbs (31, 32). 

Participles (55). 

Nouns and Pronouns (53). 

Phrases (37, 55, 56). 
w Clauses (63, 66, 68). 

Conjunctions (41, 66, 68, 72). 
Pronouns (63). 
Adverbs (63, 66). 



Independent Parts (46). 

Classes. — Meaning. Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, Ex< 

clamatory (2, 3). 



Classes. — Form. Simple, Complex, Compound (72). 



144 Tne Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON LXXV. 

STATEMENTS COMBINED. 

D IRJECTION.- Explain each of the seven different ways in which 
the two following* statements are combined, and justify the punc- 
tuation :— 

This man is to be pitied. He has no friends. = 

(a\ This man has no friends, and he is to be pitied. 

(b) This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends. 

(c) Because this man has no friends, he is to be pitied. 

(d) This man, who has no friends, is to be pitied. 

(e) This man, having no friends, is to be pitied. 

(f) This man, without friends, is to be pitied. 

(g) This friendless man deserves our pity. 

Remark. — The seven forms above illustrate changes in the gram- 
matical structure. By using synonyms and recasting the sentence, the 
same thought may be expressed in a great variety of ways ; as, 

(h) The condition of a person in whom no human being takes a 
special interest should awaken our sympathy. 

DIRECTION .— Explain all changes made in combining the follow- 
ing statements :— 

The breath of the ocean is sweet. The winds fill their mighty lungs 
with it. They strike their wings for the shore. They breathe health 
and vigor along the hosts. These hosts wait for this breath. They 
faint for it. = 

(i) The winds fill their mighty lungs with the sweet breath of ocean, 
and, striking their wings for the shore, they breath health and vigor 
along the fainting, waiting hosts. 

Life is no idle dream. Life is a solemn reality. Life is based 
upon eternity. Life is encompassed by eternity. Remember these facts 
now and alivay. Find out your task. Stand to your task. The night 
cometh. No man can then work. = 



Statements Combined. 2.45 



(J) Remember now and alway that life is no idle dream, but a solemn 
reality, based upon eternity, and encompassed by eternity. Find out 
your task ; stand to it ; the night cometh when no man can work.^- 
Carlyle. 

Caution.— Short statements closely related in meaning 
may be improved by being combined. Young writers, 
however, often use too many ands and other connectives, 
and make their sentences too long. 

Caution.— Statements not closely related in thought 
must not be combined. 

Example. — Milton was born in 1608, and his father was a scrivenej 
(improper). 

Notice that in combining statements some are mereb 
linked together, and that others are changed into. subordi- 
nate clauses, or condensed into phrases or single words. 
(Find examples above.) 

Caution.— hi combining statements be careful to give 
each the form and the position best suited to its relative 
importance and to its bearing on the general subject. 

DIRECTION.— Combine in several ways each of the following 
groups of sentences :— 

1. The ostrich is unable to fly. It has not wings in proportion to 
its body. 

2. Egypt is a fertile country. It is annually inundated by the Mle. 

3. The nerves are little threads, or fibers. They extend from the 
brain. They spread over the whole body. 

4. John Gutenberg published a book. It was the first book known 
to have been printed on a printing-press. He was aided by the pat- 

7 



24-g The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, 



ronage of John Faust. He published it in 1455. He published it in 
the city of Mentz. 

5. The human body is a machine. A watch is delicately constructed. 
This machine is more delicately constructed. A steam-engine is com- 
plicated. This machine is more complicated. A steam-engine is 
wonderful. This machine is more wonderful. 

Composition. 

To the Teacher. — Bearing in mind the fact that the sentence is the type of the 
discourse, we can hardly overrate the value of the work suggested above. 

In continuing these exercises the teacher should aim to keep under constant review 
all the principles taught in the preceding Lessons. 

Figures of speech and principles of construction, usually relegated to formal rhet- 
oric, may be here treated incidentally and informally with excellent effect. 

Sentences or paragraphs containing valuable thought may be broken up into sug- 
gestive expressions, and put on the blackboard or on cards to be copied and com- 
bined by the pupils. 



LESSON LXXVI. 

PARAGRAPHS-COMPOSITIONS. 

A sentence may be made up of closely related statements, 
a paragraph of related sentences, and a complete com- 
position of related paragraphs. 

DEFINITION.— A Paragraph is a sentence or a group of 
related sentences developing' one point or division of a general 
subject. 

In preparing to write a composition we should make out 
brief headings for the different parts into which we intend 
to divide our work. Each heading may be regarded as the 
subject of a paragraph. 

Caution.— Each paragraph should lead naturally to the 
one that follows, and all should have a direct bearing on 
the general subject. 



Paragraphs— Compositions. 1.4:7 



DIRECTION.— Combine the following* expressions into a composi- 
tion of four paragraphs, using* the analysis, or outline, here given :— 

GENERAL SUBJECT.— THE TAKING OF FORT TICONDEROGA. 

1st Paragraph.— Position of the Fort. 
2d Paragraph.— Planning the Attack. 
3d Paragraph.— Getting to the Fort. 
4th Paragraph. — Attack and Capture. 

Fort Ticonderoga on a peninsula. Formed by the outlet of Lake 
George and by Lake Champlain. Fronts south ; water on three sides. 
Separated by Lake Champlain from Mount Independence, and by the 
outlet from Mount Defiance. Fort one hundred feet above the water. 
May 7, 1775, 270 men meet at Castleton, Vermont. All but 46, Green 
Mountain boys. Meet to plan and execute an attack upon Fort T. 
Allen and Arnold there. Each claims the command. Question left 
to the officers. Allen chosen. On evening of the 9th, they reach the 
lake. Difficulty in crossing. Send for a scow. Seize a boat'at anchor. 
Search, and find small row boats. Only 83 able to cross. Day is 
dawning when these reach the shore. Not prudent to wait. Allen 
orders all who will follow him to poise their firelocks. Every man 
responds. Nathan Beman, a lad, guides them to the fort. Sentinel 
snaps his gun at A. Misses fire. Sentinel retreats. They follow. 
Rush upon the parade ground. Form. Loud cheer. A. climbs the 
stairs. Orders La Place, it is said, in the name of the great Jehovah 
and the Continental Congress, to surrender. Capture 50 men. 120 
cannon. Used next winter at the siege of Boston. Several swords 
and howitzers, small arms, and some ammunition. 

DIRECTION.— Combine the following- into three paragraphs, using 
the analysis here given :— 

GENERAL SUBJECT.-THE NILE AND ITS VALLEY. 
1st Paragraph.— Sources and Course of the Nile. 
2d Paragraph.— The Overflow. 
3d Paragraph.— Fertility of the Valley. 



148 The Sentence and. the Parts of Speech. 



The Nile rises in great lakes. Runs north. Sources two thousand 
miles from Alexandria. Course through the valley is 1,500 miles. 
Flows into the Mediterranean. Two principal channels. Minor out- 
lets. Rains at the sources. The melting of the mountain snows. Nile 
overflows its banks. Begins, in Egypt, at the end of June. Rises 
four inches daily. Rises till the latter part of September. Begins to 
fall about the middle of October. Whole valley an inland sea. Only 
villages above the surface. The valley very fertile. The deposit. The 
fertile strip is from 5 to 150 miles wide. Renowned for fruitfulness. 
Egypt long the granary of the world. Three crops from Dacember to 
June. Productions — grain, cotton, and indigo. 



LESSON LXXVI I. 

PARAGRAPHS-COMPOSITIONS. 

DIRECTION.— Make your own analysis, and combine into a com- 
position the following" suggestions concerning" the frog" :— 

Frog's spawn found in a pond. At first like a mass of jelly. Eggs 
can be distinguished. In a few days curious little fish are hatched. 
These "tadpoles" are lively. Swim by means of long tails. Head 
very large — out of proportion. Appearance of all head and tail. This 
creature is a true fish. It breathes water-air by means of gills. It has 
a two-chambered heart. Watch it day by day. Two little gills seen. 
These soon disappear. Hind legs begin to grow. Tail gets smaller. 
Two small arms, or fore-legs, are seen. Remarkable change going on 
inside. True lungs for breathing air have been forming. Another 
chamber added to the heart. As the gills grow smaller, it finds diffi- 
culty in breathing water-air. One fine day it pokes its nose out of the 
water. Astonished (possibly) to find that it can breathe in the air. A 
new life has come upon it ! No particular reason for spending all its 
time in water ; crawls out upon land ; sits down upon its haunches ; 
surveys the world. It is no longer a fish ; has entered upon a highel 
stage of existence ; has become a -'frog." 



Paragraphs— Composition. 149 



To the Teacher.— This work of analyzing a composition to find the leading 
thoughts under which the other thoughts may be grouped is, in many ways, a most 
valuable discipline. 

It teaches the pupil to compare, to discriminate, to weigh, to systematize, to read 
intelligently and profitably. 

The reading-book will afford excellent practice in finding heads for paragraphs. 
Such work is an essential preparation for the reading-class. 

After a time the teacher may profitably call attention to the formal division 
of composition into 

Introduction, 

Discussion, 

Conclusion. 



How to Write an Original Composition. 

I. Choose a Subject. — Choose your subject long before you are to 
write. Avoid a full, round term like Patriotism or Duty ; take a 
division of it ; as, How can a Boy he Patriotic f or Duties which we 
Schoolmates owe Each Other. The subject should be on your level, 
should be interesting to you, and should start in your mind many 
trains of thought. 

II. Accumulate the Material. — Turn the subject over in your 
mind in leisure moments, and, as thoughts flash upon you, jot them 
down in your blank-book. Pay little regard to their order on the page 
or to their relative importance ; but, if any seem broad enough for the 
main points, or heads, indicate this. Talk with no one on the subject, 
and read nothing on it, till you have thought yourself empty ; and 
even then you should note down what the conversation or reading sug- 
gests, rather than what you have heard or read. 

III. Construct a Framework. — Before writing search through your 
material for the main points, or heads. Perhaps this or that jotting, as it 
stands, includes enough to serve as a head. Be sure that by brooding 
over your material, and by further thinking upon the subject, you get 
at all the general thoughts into which, as it seems to you, the subject 
should be analyzed. Study these points carefully. See that no two 



150 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



overlap each other, that no one appears twice, that no one has been 
raised to the dignity of a head that should stand under some head, and 
that no one is foreign to the subject. Study now to find the natural 
order in which these points should stand. Let no point follow another 
when it is a necessary introduction to that other. If developing all the 
points would make your composition too long, study to see what points 
you can omit without abrupt break or essential loss. 

IV. Write. — Give your whole attention to your work as you write, 
and other thoughts will occur to you, and better ways of putting 
the thoughts already noted down. In expanding the main points into 
paragraphs, be sure that everything falls under its appropriate head. 
Cast out everything that has not a direct bearing on your subject. Do 
not strain 'after effect, or strive to seem wiser than you are. Use 
familiar words, and place these, your phrases, and your clauses, where 
they will make your thought the clearest. As occasion calls, change 
from the natural order to the transposed, and let sentences, simple, 
complex, and compound, long and short, stand shoulder to shoulder in 
the paragraph. Express yourself easily — only now and then putting 
your thought forcibly and with feeling. Let a fresh image here and 
there relieve the uniformity of plain language. One sentence should 
follow another without abrupt break. Look sharply to the spelling, to 
the use of capital letters, to punctuation, and to grammatical forms. 

V. Attend to the Mechanical Execution. — Keep your pages clean, 
and let your handwriting be clear. On the left of the page leave a 
margin of an inch for corrections. Do not write on the fourth page ; 
if you exceed three pages, use another sheet. When the writing is 
done, double the lower half of the sheet over the upper, and fold 
through the middle ; then bring the top down and fold again. Bring 
the right end toward you, and across the top write your name and 
the date. This superscription will be at the top of the fourth page, at 
the right-hand corner, and at right angles to the ruled lines. 

To the Teacher.— Question the pupils closely upon these directions, and insist 
that they shall practice what is here laid down. 
See list of subjects for composition, p. 324. 



Subdivisions- of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON LXXVI I I. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Introductory. — For Common and Proper nouns, see Lessons XI,, 
XII. For Personal, Interrogative, and Relative pronouns, see 
Less. XIV., LXIII. In "All must die," all (= all men) performs the 
offices of both an adjective and a noun. These words that stand for 
things by pointing them out as near or remote, or by telling something 
of their number, order, or quantity ; as, this, that, one, latter, much, are 
called Adjective Pronouns. 



DEFINITIONS. 

Classes of Nouns. 

A Noun is the name of anything. 

A Common Noun is a name which belongs to all things of & 
class. 

A Proper Noun is the particular name of an individual. 

Remark. — It may be well to note two classes of common nouns — 
collective and abstract. A Collective Noun is the name of a number 
of things taken together ; as, army, flock, mob, jury. An Abstract 
Noun is the name of a quality, an action, a being, or a state of being ; 
as, whiteness, beauty, wisdom, (the) singing, movement, existence, (the) 
sleep. 



152 Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech. 



Classes of Pronouns. 
A Pronoun is a word used for a noun. 

A Personal Pronoun is one that, by its form, denotes the 
speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. 

A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to some preceding 
word or words, and connects clauses. 

An Interrogative Pronoun is one with which a question is 
asked. 

An Adjective Pronoun is one that performs the offices of 
both an adjective and a noun. 

The simple personal pronouns are — i", thou, you, he, she, and it. 

The compound personal pronouns are — myself, thyself, yourself, 
himself, herself, and itself. 

The simple relative pronouns are — who, which, that, and what. 

The compound relative pronouns are — ivhoever or whosoever, 
whichever or whichsoever, whatever or ivhatsoever. 

The interrogative pronouns are — who, which, and what. 

Some of the more common adjective pronouns are — all, another, 
any, both, each, either, enough, feiv, former, latter, little, many, much, 
neither, none, one, other, same, several, such, that, those, this, these, 
whole. 

The word, phrase, or clause in the place of which a pro- 
noun is used is called an Antecedent. 

D1KJECTION.— Point out the pronouns and their antecedents in 
these sentences :— 

Jack was rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when they 
met. To lie is to be a coward, which one should scorn to be. To sleep 
soundly, which is a blessing, is to repair and renew the body. To lie 
is cowardly, and every boy should know it. 



Construction of Pronouns. 153 



DIRECTION.— Determine the class and explain the office of each 
pronoun in the following- sentences :— 

Examples. — " I myself do not know who that is." J is a personal 
pronoun, standing for the speaker ; it is the subject of do know. 
Myself is a compound personal pronoun, standing for the speaker ; it 
is an explanatory modifier of J, adding emphasis. Who is an inter- 
rogative pronoun, the question being indirect ; its antecedent cannot- 
be determined without the answer to the question ; it introduces the 
noun clause and is the attribute complement of is. That is an adjec- 
tive pronoun, standing for that person; it is the subject of is. 

1. You yourself do not know who invented letters. 2. Who steals 
my purse steals trash. 8. What was said, and who said it ? 4. He 
heard all that was said. 5. He heard what was said. 6. Whatever is 
done must be done quickly. 7. You must determine what it is. 8. 
She saw one of them, but she cannot tell which. 9. It is not known to 
whom the honor belongs. 



LESSON LXXIX. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS. 

Caution.— Avoid he, it, they, or any other pronoun when 
its reference to an antecedent would not be clear. Kepeat 
the noun instead, quote the speaker's exact words, or recast 
the sentence. 

Examples. — " The lad cannot leave his father ; for, if he should, he 
would die " (not clear) = ' ' The lad cannot leave his father ; for, if he 
should, his father would die" (noun repeated). 

"Lysias promised his father never to abandon his friends" (not 
clear; = " Lysias gave his father this promise : * I will never abandon 
your friends ' " (speaker's words quoted). 
7* 



154 Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech. 



DIRECTION.— Note the different meanings that may be given to 
each of the following- sentences, and then make the sentences clear :— 

1. Dr. Prideaux says that, when he took his commentary to the 
bookseller, he told him it was a dry subject. 2. He said to his friend 
that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought he had better go home. 
3. A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not, because he was so 
short. 4. Charles's duplicity was fully made known to Cromwell by 
a letter of his to his wife, which he intercepted. 5. The farmer told 
the lawyer that his bull had gored his ox, and that it was but fair that 
he should pay him for his loss. 

Caution. — Do not use pronouns needlessly. 

Remark. — Pleonasm, or repetition for rhetorical effect, is allowed \ 
as, " The star-spangled banner, long may it wave ! " but such expres- 
sions as " John he doesn't think so," are vulgar errors. 

DIRECTION.— Correct these sentences by omitting' needless pro* 
nouns :— 

6. It is n't true what he said. 7. The father he died, the mother she 
followed, and the children they were taken sick. 8. The cat it mewed* 
and the dogs they barked, and the man he shouted. 9. Napoleon, 
Waterloo having been lost, he gave himself up to the English. 

Caution.— The relative who should represent persons ; 
which, animals and things ; that, persons,, animals, and 
things ; and what, things. The antecedent of what should 
not be expressed. 

DIRECTION.— Correct the following errors and give reasons :— 

10. The horse whom Alexander rode was named Bucephalus. 11. 
All what he saw he described. 12. Those which say so are mistaken. 
13. The thing what is done cannot be undone. 14. He has friends 
which I know. 



Construction of Pronouns. 155 



Caution.— In a restrictive clause, that is generally pre- 
ferred where it will sound as well as who or which. When 
the clause is not restrictive, who or which is generally pre- 
ferred to that. 

DIRECTION.— Study the Caution above and the explanation ot 
restrictive clauses, Lesson LXIV., then fill the following: blanks^ 
giving* reasons for your choice :— ■ 

15. The wisest men — — ever lived made mistakes. 16. Who 

saw him did not pity him. 17. He is the very man we want. 

18. He is the same he has ever been. 19. All knew him 

respected him. 20. It was not 1 did it. 21. Water, is a com- 
pound of hydrogen and oxygen, covers three-fourths of the earth's sur- 
face. 22. Longfellow, is the most popular American poet, has 

written beautiful prose. 23. Time, is a precious gift, should not 

be wasted. 

DIRECTION.— Correct the following and give reasons :— 

24. We cannot justify the means that this was accomplished by, 
25. The relative represents that that has gone before. 26. It happens 
too frequently that that that should be, is not. 

Caution.— Several connected relative clauses relating to 
the same antecedent require the same relative pronoun. 

DIRECTION.— Correct these errors:— 

27. It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became governor of 
the land, and which saved his father and brothers from famine. 28. 
This is the horse which started first, and that reached the stand last. 
29. The man that fell overboard, and who was drowned was the first 
mate. 

Caution.— The relative clause should be placed as near as 
possible to the word that it modifies. 



156 Subdivisions of the Parts of Speeeii. 



DIRECTION.— Corxect these errors :— 

30. The pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is diligent. 
31. Her hair hung in ringlets, which was dark and glossy. 32. 
Claudius was canonized among the god's, who scarcely deserved the 
name of man. 33. He should not keep a horse that cannot ride. 

Caution.— When this and that, these and those, the one 
and the other refer to things previously mentioned, this and 
these refer to the last mentioned, and that and those to the 
first mentioned ; the one refers to the first mentioned, and 
the other to the last mentioned. (Obscurity is often pre- 
vented by a repetition of the words referred to. ) 

DIRECTION.— Correct these errors :— 

34. The selfish and the benevolent are found in every community ; 
these are shunned, while those are sought after. 35. Talent speaks 
learnedly at the bar ; tact, triumphantly : this is complimented by the 
bench ; that gets the fees. 36. Homer was a genius ; Virgil, an artist : 
in the one we most admire the work ; in the other, the man. 



LESSON LXXX. 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Introductory. — See Lesson XXVI., first Direction and exercise. 

DEFINITIONS. 

An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. 

A Descriptive A djective is one that modifies by expressing 
quality. 

A Definitive Adjective is one that modifier by pointing out, 
numbering, or denoting quantity. 



Classes of Adjectives. 15? 



The definitive adjectives an or a and the are commonlj 
called Articles. 

To the Teacher.— Exercises for di sting niching Descriptive and Definitive adjee 
tives may be selected from the preceding Lessons in analysis. 

The classification of adjectives made by grammarians is not, in our opinion, of 
great practical value. 

Construction of Adjectives. 

Caution.— An is used before a vowel sound,* but drops 
n and becomes a before a consonant sound. 

Remark. — Notice that the form of the article depends upon the 
word immediately following, which may, or may not, be the word 
modified. 

DIRECTION.— Study the following- examples, and give the sound 
that controls the form of each article :— 

An actor, an end, an item, an oak, an usher, a good actor, a happy 
end, a small item, a large oak, a polite usher, a history, f an hour (h is 
silent), a usurper (u = yoo), a one (one begins with the sound of w). 

Caution.— Use an, a, or the before each of two or more 
connected adjectives, when these adjectives modify differ- 
ent nouns, expressed or understood ; but, when they modify 
the same noun, the article should not be repeated. J 

Explanation.— " A cotton and a silk umbrella " means two umbrel- 
las — one cotton and the other silk ; the word umbrella is understood 
after cotton. "A cotton and silk umbrella" means one umbrella, 

* The vowel sounds are the open voice sounds of a, e, i, 0, u. All others are conso- 
nant sounds. 

t An is sometimes used before unaccented h ; as an historian. 

X When qualities are to be emphatically distinguished, the article is sometimes 
repeated before adjectives modifying the same noun. 



258 Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech. 



partly cotton and partly silk ; cotton and silk modify the same noun, 
umbrella. The ivise and the good means two classes ; the wise and 
means one class. 



DIRECTION.— Study the Caution as explained, and correct these 
errors :— 

1. The Northern and Southern Hemisphere. 2. The Northern and 
the Southern Hemispheres. 3. The right and left hand. 4. The 
fourth and the fifth verses of the poem. 5. The fourth and fifth verse. 
6. A Webster's and Worcester's dictionary. 

Caution.— Repeat an, a, or the before connected nouns 
denoting things that are to be distinguished from each 
other or emphasized. 

DIRECTION.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors :— 

7. We criticise not the dress, but address, of the speaker. 8. A noun 
and pronoun are alike in office. 9. Distinguish carefully between an 
adjective and adverb. 10. The lion, as well as tiger, belongs to the 
<eat tribe. 11. Neither the North Pole nor South Pole has yet been 
reached. 12. The secretary and treasurer were both absent. (The 
secretary and treasurer was absent — referring to one person — is cor- 
rect.) 

Caution.— Choose apt adjectives, but do not use them 
aeedlessly ; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it. 

Examples. — The following adjectives are obviously needless : Good 
virtues ; verdant green ; painful toothache ; umbrageous shade. 

DIRECTION.— Correct these errors :— 

13. It was splendid fun. 14. It was a tremendous dew. 15. He used 
less words than the other speaker. (Less refers to quantity — use fewer 
here.) 16. The lad was neither docile nor teachable. 17. The belief 
in immortality is common and universal, 18. It was a gorgeous 



Classes of Verbs and Adverbs. 259 



apple. 19. The arm-chair was roomy and capacious. 20. It was a 
lovely bunn, but I paid a frightful price for it. 

Caution. — Place adjectives where there can be no doubt 
as to what you intend them to modify. If those forming a 
series are of different rank, place nearest the noun the one 
most closely modifying it ; if they are of the same rank, 
place them where they will sound best — generally in the 
order of length — the shortest first. 

DIRECTION.— Correct these errors:- 

21. The house was comfortable and large. 22. A salt barrel of pork. 
23. It was a blue soft beautiful sky. 24. A fried dish of bacon. 25. 
Two gray fiery little eyes. 26. A docile and mild pupil. 27. A pupil, 
docile and mild. 



LESSON LXXXI. 

CLASSES OF VERBS AND ADVERBS. 

Introductory. — You learned in Lesson XL VIII. that some verbs 
express action as passing over from a doer to a receiver. As transitive 
means passing over, we call such Transitive Verbs. 

The object of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of 
the action, may be the object complement, or it may be the subject ; as, 
ii Washington captured Cornwallis;" " Comwallis was captured by 
Washington/' 

All verbs that, like fall in " Leaves /a/Z," do not represent the action 
as passing over to a receiver, and all that express mere being or state 
of being are called Intransitive Verbs. 

A verb transitive in one sentence ; as, "He writes good English," 
may be intransitive in another ; as, "He writes well" — meaning sim- 



IQO Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech. 



ply He is a good writer. A verb is transitive only when an object is 
expressed or obviously understood. 

For Regular Verbs and Irregular Verbs see Lesson LVIII. 



DEFINITIONS. 
A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being* 

Classes of Verbs with respect to Meaning. 
A Transitive Verb is one that requires an object. 
An Intransitive Verb is one that does not require an object. 

Classes of Verbs with respect to Form. 

A Hegular Verb is one that forms its past tense and past 
participle by adding ed to the present. 

An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its past tense and 
past participle by adding ed to the present. 

Remarks. — Verbs that have both a regular and an irregular form are 
called Redundant ; as, present, clothe ; past, clothed or clad ; past 
participle, clothed or clad. 

Verbs that are wanting in any of their parts are called Defective ; 
as, present, may ; past, might ; past participle, . 

DIRECTION.— Classify the verbs in Lessons XXV. and L 6 

Classes of Adverbs. 
Introductory. — See Lesson XXXI. 

DEFINITIONS. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an 
adverb. 



Classes of Verbs and Adverbs. lfi\ 



Adverbs of Time are those that generally answer the ques- 
tion , When f 

Examples. — Early, hereafter, now, often, presently, soon. 

Adverbs of Place are those that generally answer the 
question. Where f 

Examples. — Away, hack, elsewhere, here, out, within. 

Adverbs of Degree are those that generally answer the 
question. To what extent ? 
Examples. — Exceedingly, hardly, quite, sufficiently, too, very. 

Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the 
question, In what way f 

Examples. — Beautifully, naturally, so, thus, well, no, yes* 

Adverbs of Cause are those that generally answer the 
question, Why ? 

Examples. — Consequently, hence, therefore, why. 

Construction of Adverbs. 

Caution.— Choose apt adverbs, but do not use them need- 
lessly or instead of other forms of expression ; avoid such 
as repeat the idea or exaggerate it. 

Examples.— I could ill (not illy) afford the time. Do as (not like) I 
do. A diphthong is the union of two vowels (not where or when two 
vowels unite) in the same syllable. This (not this here or ''ere) sentence 
is correct. He wrote that (not how that) he had been sick. I went 
almost (or nearly) there (not I went most there). 

DIRECTION.— Correct the following* errors :— 

1. I returned back here yesterday. 2. He had not hardly a minute 

* No and yes, used to answer questions, are generally called indeoendent adverbs. 
They seem to modify words omitted in the answer but contained in the question ; 
as, Did you see him ? No ( = I did no (not) see him). 

Some make of these words a separate part of speech, and call them responsive*- 



162 Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech. 



to spare. 3. It was awfully amusing. 4. This 'ere knife is dull. 5. A 
direct quotation is when the exact words of another are copied. 6. He 
seldom or ever went home sober. 7. The belief in immortality is uni- 
versally held by all. 8. I am dreadfully glad to hear that. 9. He 
said how that he would go. 

Caution.— Place adverbs where there can be no doubt as 
to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the 
sound also.' 

DIRECTION.— Correct these errors :— 

10. I have thought of marrying often. 11. We only eat three meals 
a day. 12. He hopes to rapidly recruit. 13. His sagacity almost 
appears miraculous. 

Caution,— Unless you wish to affirm, do not use two 
negative words so that they shall contradict each other. 

Examples. — No one has (not has n't) yet reached the North Pole. 
No man can do nothing (proper, because it is intended to affirm that 
every man must do something). 

DIRECTION.— Correct these errors :— 

14. No other reason can never be given. 15. He is n't improving 
much, I don't think. 16. There must be something wrong when 
children do not love neither father nor mother. 

Caution, — Do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjectives 
for adverbs. (See Lesson LI.) 

DIRECTION.— Correct these errors :— 

17. You must read more distinct. 18. It was an uncommon good 
harvest. 19. The prima donna sings sweet. 20. She is miserable 
poor. 21. My head feels badly. 22. He spoke up prompt. 23. This 
is a dreadful cold dav. 



Classes of Conjunctions and other Connectives. 1(33 



LESSON LXXXI I. 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER CON- 
NECTIVES. 

Observation Exercises.— Find in Lesson XLI. a conjunction con- 
necting two subjects ; one connecting two adjectives ; one connecting 
two phrases. Find two conjunctions that form a pair, one being placed 
before, and the other between, the connected terms. Find in Lesson 
XLV. two other such pairs. 

Notice that two words or phrases connected by a conjunction have 
the same office in the sentence — are of the same rank. 

t Find in Lesson LXXTI. three different conjunctions that connect 
clauses. Are these clauses of the same rank, or does one depend on 
the other ? 

What do because and if connect in Lesson LXVI. ? Are the clauses 
here connected of the same rank, or is one dependent on the other ? 

See whether you can make the connectives in Lesson LXVI. join 
words or phrases. See whether those in Lesson LXXII. will join words 
and phrases. How then may you group connectives ? 



DEFINITIONS. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or 
clauses.* 

Co-ordinate Conjunctions are such as connect words, 
phrases, or clauses of the same rank. 

Subordinate Conjunctions are such as connect clauses 
of different rank. 

(For classified lists of conjunctions, see pp. 293, 294.) 

* Some of the co-ordinate conjunctions, as and and but, are used to connect, in 
thought, sentences separated by the period, and even to connect paragraphs. In 
analysis and parsing, we regard only the individual sentence, and treat such conr.^t 
ives as introductory. 



1(34: Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech. 



Construction of Connectives. 

Caution.— Some conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs 
may stand in correlation with other words ; as, either . . . or; 
neither . . . nor ; not only . . . hut or but also. 

Be careful that the right words stand in correlation, and 
stand where they belong. 

Examples. — Give me neither riches nor (not or) poverty. I cannot 
find either my book or (not nor) my hat. Dogs not only bark but also 
bite (correct) ; Not only dogs bark but also bite (incorrect). Not only 
dogs bark, but wolves' also (correct); Dogs not only bark, but wolves 
also (incorrect). He was neither rich nor poor (correct) ; He neither 
was rich nor poor (incorrect). 

The first of these related connectives should stand immediately 
before the first of the terms directly connected. 

DIJRJECTIOK.— Correct these errors :— 

1. He not only gave me advice but also money. 2. She not only 
dressed richly but tastefully. 3. Neither Massachusetts or Pennsyl- 
vania has the population of New York. 4. Thales was not only famous 
for his knowledge of nature, but also for his moral wisdom. 5. There 
was nothing either strange nor interesting. 

Caution. — Choose apt connectives, but do not use them 
needlessly or instead of other parts of speech. 

Examples. — -Seldom, if (not or) ever, should an adverb stand be- 
tween to and the infinitive. I will try to (not and) do better next 
time. No one can deny that (not but) he has money. A harrow is 
drawn over the ground, which (not and which) covers the seed. Who 
doubts that (not but that or but what) Napoleon lived ? The doctor 
had scarcely left when (not but) a patient called. He thinks as (not 
like) I do. 

DIItJECTION.— Correct these errors :— 

6. The excellence of Virgil, and which he possesses beyond other 



Classes of Conjunctions and other Connectives. }65 



poets, is tenderness. 7. Try and recite the lesson perfectly to-morrow. 
8. Who can doubt but that there is a God ? 9. He seldom or ever 
went to church. 10. No one can deny but that the summer is the 
hottest season. 11. I do not know as I shall like it. 

Caution.— Else, other, otherwise, rather, ancl adjectives 
and adverbs expressing a comparison are usually followed 
"by than. But else, other, and more, implying something 
additional, but not different in kind,, may be followed by 
but or besides. 

Examples. — A diamond is nothing else than carbon. Junius was 
no other than Sir Philip Francis. He can converse on other topics 
besides politics. 

DIRECTION.— Correct these errors :^ 

12. Battles are fought with other weapons besides pop-guns. 13. 
The moon is something else but green cheese. 14. Cornwallis could not 
do otherwise but to surrender. 15. It was no other but the President. 
16. He no sooner saw the enemy but he turned and ran. 

Caution.— Two or more connected words or phrases refer- 
ring to another word or phrase should each make good 
sense with it. 

Examples. — I have always (add said) and still do say that labor is 
honorable. Shakespeare was greater than any other poet that has (add 
lived) or is now alive. The boy is stronger than his sister, but not so 
tall (not The boy is stronger, but not so tall, as his sister). 

DIRECTION.— Correct these errors :— 

17. Gold is heavier, but not so useful, as iron. 18. Gold is not so 
useful, but heavier, than iron. 19. This is as valuable, if not more so, 
than that. 20. Bread is more nutritious, but not so cheap, as potatoes. 
21. This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall 
be, published. 



\QQ Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON LXXXIII. 

PREPOSITIONS.* 
Prepositions and Interjections are not Subdivided. 

Construction of Prepositions. 

Caution. — Great care must be used in the choice of prep- 
ositions. 

To the Teacher. — In doubtful cases the pupil should consult the unabridged 
dictionary for the preposition in question, and also for the preceding word to which 
it is joined. 

After the right prepositions have been found, let the pupils read the correct forms 
aloud till they are familiar to the tongue and to the ear. 

DIRECTION.— Correct these errors :— 

1. This book is different to that. 2. He stays to home. 3. He is in 
want for money. 4. I was followed with a crowd. 5. He fell from 
the bridge inf the water. 6. He bears a close resemblance of his 
father. 7. He lives at London. 8. He lives in the turn of the road. 
9. The child died with the croup. 10. She is angry with your con- 
duct. 11. He is angry at his father. 12. He placed a letter into my 
hands. 13. What is the matter of him ? 14. I saw him over to the 
house. 15. These plants differ with each other. 16. He threw himself 
onto the bed. 17. We are hard to work. 18. He distributed the apples 
between his four brothers. 19. He went in the park. 20. You can con- 
fide on him. 21. He stays to school late. 22. The Colonies declared 
themselves independent from England. 

Caution.— Do not use prepositions needlessly. 

DIUJE CTION.— Correct these errors :- 

23. Tn what latitude is Boston in ? 24. He came in for to have 



* For list see p. 292. 

t In denotes motion or rest in a condition or place ; into, change from one condi- 
tion or place into another. " When one is outside of a place, he may be able to get 
into it ; but he cannot do anything in it until he has got into it.'" 



Review. 167 

a talk. 25. I was leading of a horse about (leading is transitive). 
26. Where are you going to ? 27. They admitted of the fact. 28. 
Raise your book off of the table. 29. He took the poker from out 
of the fire. 30. Of what is the air composed of ? 31. You can tell 
by trying of it. 32. This is the subject of which I intend to write 
about. 33. I have a brother of five years old. 34. Jack's favorite 
sport was in robbing of orchards. 35. Keep off of the grass. 

Caution. — Do not omit prepositions when they are needed. 

ZURECTION.-Correct these errors :- 

36. There is no use going there. 37. I was prevented going. 38. He 
is unworthy our charity. 39. What use is this to him ? 40. It was 
the size of a pea. 41. Egypt is the west side of the Red Sea. 42. His 
efforts were not for the great, but the lowly. 



LESSON LXXXIV. 

REVIEW. 

To the Teacher. — The following exercises in criticism are intended as a com- 
plete review of the twenty- three Cautions preceding. 

DIJRJECTIOK.— Correct the following* errors and give reasons :— 

1. A told B that he was his best friend. 2. John's father died when 
he was two years old. 3. There is no book which, when we look 
through it sharply, we cannot find mistakes in it. 4. Kosciusko hav- 
ing come to this country, he aided us in our Revolutionary struggle. 
5. There are some men which are always young. 6. The brakemen 
and the cattle which were on the train were killed. 7. He who does 
all which he can does enough. 8. The diamond, that is pure carbon, is 
a brilliant gem. 9. There are miners that live below ground, and who 
seldom see the light. 10. They need no spectacles that are blind. 
11. A man should sit down and count the cost who is about to build a 



■r qq Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech. 

house. 12. Reputation and character do not mean the same thing : 
the one denotes what we are ; the other, what we are thought to be. 
13. A umpire became an usurper. 14. The right and left lung were 
diseased. 15. The right and the left lungs were both diseased. 16 e A 
white and red flag were flying. 17. There is a difference between a 
predicate verb and participle. 18. I have less friends than she. 19. 
The evil is intolerable and not to be borne. 20. Samuel Adams's habits 
were unostentatious and frugal. 21. Begin it over again. 22. Most 
everybody talks so. 23. Verbosity is when too many words are used. 
24. He is some better just now. 25. They were nearly dressed alike. 
26. The tortured man begged that they would kill him again and 
again. 27. He has n't gone yet I don't believe. 28. The cars will not 
stop at this station only when the bell rings. 29. This can be done 
easier. 30. We have had a remarkable cold winter. 31. A knows 
more, but does not talk so well, as B. 32. Some people never have, 
and never will, bathe in salt water. 33. He would neither go himself 
or send anybody. 34. Who doubts but what two and two are four ? 
35. The fish breathes with other organs besides lungs. 36. I board in 
the hotel. 37. The year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter 
poverty. 38. At what wharf does the boat stop at ? 39. It was the 
length of your finger. 



Modifications of the Pakts of Speech. 



LESSON LXXXV. 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS-NUMBER. 

Introductory. — You have learned that a thought may be expressed 
in two words ; as, "Boys study," and that the thought may be varied 
by adding modifying words ; as, "Some boys study hard." 

You have also learned that a thought may be varied by simply 
changing the form of the words employed ; as, "The boy studies ;" 
" The boys study." (See Lesson XX.) 

Some of these changes in form indicate changes in meaning ; as, 
boy, boys ; lion, lioness ; others indicate changes in use or relation ; 
as, boy, boy's ; I see, He sees. All such changes in form are called 
Inflections. 

Our language has lost many of its Inflections, in some instances 
dropping them with one class of words and retaining them with 
another ; as, Nom. lady, Obj. lady ; Nom. she, Obj. her. 

We shall apply the term Modifications not only to inflections but 
also to corresponding changes in meaning and use, even when the 
inflections are wanting. 



DEFINITIONS. 

Modifications of the Parts of Speech are changes in 
their form, meaning, and use. 

Number is that modification of a noun or pronoun which 
denotes one thing or more than one. 



170 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



The Singular Number denotes one thing. 

The Plural Number denotes more than one thing. 

Number- Forms. 
RULE.— Nouns are generally made plural by adding s or es. 

Remarks. — When the sound of s will not unite with the last sound 
of the singular, es is added to make another syllable. 

Such words as horse and cage drop the final e when es is added.* 

nmECTION.-Forin the plural of each of the following" nouns, and 
note what letters represent sounds that cannot unite with the sound 

of s :— 

Ax or axe, arch, adz or adze, box, brush, cage, chaise, cross, ditch, 
face, gas, glass, hedge, horse, lash, lens, niche, prize, race, topaz. 

Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es 
without increase of syllables. 

DIRECTION — Form the plural of each of the following* nouns :— 

Buffalo, calico, cargo, echo, embargo, hero, innuendo, motto, mos- 
quito, mulatto, negro, potato, tomato, tornado, veto, volcano. 

Some nouns in o preceded by a consonant add s only. 

DIRECTION.— Form, the plural of each of the following nouns :— 

Canto, domino (os or oes), duodecimo, halo, junto, lasso, memento, 
octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero (os or oes). 

Nouns in o preceded by a vowel add s only. 

Bamboo, cameo, cuckoo, embryo, folio, portfolio, trio. 

Common nouns f in y after a consonant change y into i 

* See Rule, p 318. t See Rule, p. 318. 



Nouns and Pronouns-Number, ]_yj 



and add es without increase of syllables. Nouns in y after 
a vowel add s only. 

DIRECTION.- Form the plural of each of the following nouns :— 

Alley, ally, attorney, chimney, city, colloquy,* daisy, essay, fairy, 
fancy, kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, mystery, soliloquy, turkey, 
valley, vanity. 

Some nouns change / or fe into ves. 

DIRECTION — Form the plural of each of the following: nouns :— 

Beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff, f 
thief, wharf 4 wife, wolf. 

Some nouns in f and fe are regular. 

DIRECTION.— Form the plural of each of the following- nouns :— 

Belief, brief, chief, dwarf, fife, grief, gulf, hoof, kerchief, proof, 
reef, roof, safe, scarf, strife, waif. 

(Nouns mff, except staff, are regular ; as, cuff, cuffs.) 
Some plurals are still more irregular. 

DIRECTION.— Learn to form the following 1 plurals :— 

Child, children ; foot, feet ; goose, geese ; louse, lice ; man, men ; 
mouse, mice ; Mr., Messrs. ; ox, oxen ; tooth, teeth ; woman, women. 

(For the plurals of pronouns, see pp. 295-297.) 



* U after q is a consonant. 

t Staff (a stick or support), staves or staffs ; staff (a body of officers), staffs. The 
compounds of staff are regular ; as, flag-staffs. 
% In England, generally ivharfs. 



172 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON LXXXVI. 

NUMBER-FORMS-CONTINUED. 

Some nouns adopted from foreign languages still retain 
their original plural forms. Some or these take the English 
plural also. 

niKECTION.-IaesLYn to form the following* plurals :— 
Analysis, analyses* ; antithesis, antitheses ; axis, axes ; bandit, 
banditti or bandits ; basis, bases ; beau, beaux or beaus ; cherub, 
cherubim or cherubs ; crisis, crises ; datum, data ; ellipsis, ellipses ; 
focus, foci ; fungus, fungi or funguses ; genus, genera ; hypothesis, 
hypotheses ; madame, mesdames (ma-dam') ; memorandum, memoranda 
or memorandums ; nebula, nebulae ; oasis, oases ; parenthesis, paren- 
theses ; phenomenon, phenomena ; radius, radii or radiuses ; seraph, 
seraphim or seraphs ; stratum, strata ; synopsis, synopses ; terminus, 
termini ; vertebra, vertebrae. 

Some compound nouns in which the principal word stands 
first vary the first word ; as, sons-in-law. 

DIRECTION.- Form the plural of the following- words :- 

Aid-de-camp, attorney-at-law, billet-doux, commander-in-chief, 
court-martial, cousin-germ an, father-in-law, hanger-on, man-of-war. 

Most compounds vary the last word ; as, pailf wis, f gen- 
tlemen. 

D IB, JECTION.— Form the plural of each of the following" nouns :— 

Englishman, Frenchman, forget-me-not, goose-quill, handful, mouth- 
ful, piano-forte, spoonful, step-son, tooth-brush. 

* The Latin plural ending es is pronounced ez. 

+ Pails full is not a compound. This expression denotes a number of pails, each 
full. 



Number- Forms— Continued. J. 73 



The following nouns are not treated as compounds of man 
— add s. 

Brahman, German, Mussulman, Norman, Ottoman, talisman. 

A few compounds vary both parts ; as, man-singer, men* 
singers. 

DIRECTION. -Form the plural of each of the following- nouns :— 

Man-child, man-servant, woman-servant, woman-singer. 

Compounds consisting of a proper name preceded by a 
title form the plural by varying either the title or the name; 
as, the Misses Clark or the Miss Claries ; but, when the title 
Mrs. is used, the name is varied ; as, the Mrs. Clarks. 

DIRECTION.— "Form, the plural of the following* compounds :— 

Miss Jones, Mr. Jones, General Lee, Dr. Brown, Master Green. 

A title used with two or more different names is made 
plural ; as, Drs. Grimes and Steele, Messrs. Clark and 
Maynard. 

DIRECTION.— Put each of the following 1 expressions in its proper 
form :— 

General Lee and Jackson ; Miss Mary, Julia, and Anna Scott ; Mr. 
Fields, Osgood, & Co. 

Letters, figures, and other characters add the apostrophe 
and s to form the plural; as, 

Dot the i\ cross the fs, and make the + 's and x % the Ts and 9's 
more distinct. 



174 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON LXXXVII. 

NUMBER-FORMS-CONTINUED. 

Some nouns have two plurals differing in meaning. 

f 
DIRECTION.— X.earn to form the following- plurals, and note the 
meaning- of each :— 



Index, 



brothers (by blood), 
Brother, ■{ brethren (of the same Head, 
society). 

dies (stamps for coin- 
ing), 

dice (cubes for gam- 
ing). 

fishes (individuals), 

fish (collection). 

geniuses (men of gen- 
ius), 

genii (spirits). 



Die, 

Fish,* 
Genius, 



heads (parts of the 
body), 

head (of cattle). 

indexes (tables of refer- 
ence), 

indices (signs in al- 
gebra). 



c pennies (distinct coins). 
Penny, -\ pence (quantity in 
( value). 
•i j sails (pieces of canvas), 



Sail, 



sail (vessels). 



Some nouns and pronouns have the same form in both 
numbers. 

niHUCTION.-Study the following- list :— 

Amends, bellows, corps, f deer, gross, grouse, hose, means, odds, 
pains (care), series, sheep, species, swine, vermin, who, which, that 
(relative), what, any, none. 

Remark. — The following have two forms in the plural. 

Apparatus, apparatus or apparatuses ; heathen, heathen or heathens. 



* The names of several sorts of fish ; as, herring, shad, trout, etc., are used in the 
same way. The compounds offish, as codfish, have the same form in both numbers, 
t The singular is pronounced Jcor, the plural korz. 



Number- Forms- Continued. 175 



Remark. — The following nouns have the same form in both, numbers 
when used with numerals ; they add s in other cases ; as, one score, 
three score, by scores. 

Brace, couple, dozen, score, yoke, hundred, thousand. 
Some nouns have no plural. 

Remarks. — These are generally names of materials, qualities, or 
sciences. 

Names of materials, when taken in their full or strict sense, can have 
no plural, but they may be plural when kinds of the material or things 
made of it are referred to ; as, cottons, coffees, tins, coppers. 

ZUBJECTIOK.-Stu&y the following- list of words :— 
Bread, coffee, copper, flour, gold, goodness, grammar (science, not a 
book), grass, hay, honesty, iron, lead, marble, meekness, milk, mo- 
lasses, music, peace, physiology, pride, tin, water. 

Remark. — The following were originally plural forms, but they are 
now more commonly treated as singular. 

Acoustics, ethics, mathematics, politics (and other names of sciences 
in ics), news. 

Some words are always plural. 

Remark. — These are generally names of things double or multiform 
in their character. 

niKJECTION.-Stu&y the following- list :— 

Aborigines, annals, ashes, assets, clothes, fireworks, hysterics, 
literati, measles, mumps, nippers, oats,* pincers, rickets, scissors, 
shears, snuffers, suds, thanks, tongs, tidings, trowsers, victuals, 
vitals. 

Remark. — The following were originally singular forms, but they 
are now treated as plural. 

* Oat is sometimes used, but a grain of oats would be better. 



176 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Alms (Anglo-Saxon, celmesse), eaves (A.-S., efese), riches (Norman 
French, richesse). 

Construction of Number-Forms. 

Collective nouns are treated as plural when the individ- 
uals in the collection are thought of, and as singular when 
the collection as a whole is thought of. 

Examples. — The committee were unable to agree, and they asked to 
be discharged. A committee was appointed, and its report will soon 
be made. 

Remark. — Collective nouns have plural forms ; as, committees, 
armies. 

The number of a noun may be determined not only by its 
form, but also by the verb, the adjective, and the pronoun 
used in connection with it. 

Examples. — " These scissors are so dull that I cannot use them." 
The plurality of scissors is here made known in four ways. In the fol- 
lowing sentence this, is, and it are incorrectly used : " This scissors 
is so dull that I cannot use it. " 

DIRECTION — Construct sentences in which the number of each of 
the following* nouns shall be indicated by the form of the jwonoun, 
the adjective, or the verb used in connection with it :— 

Means, series, species, riches, molasses, family, crowd, meeting. 



LESSON LXXXVIII. 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS-GENDER. 

Introductory. — Some nouns change their form to indicate the sex of 
the one named ; as, lion, denoting a male ; lioness, denoting a female. 



Nouns and Pronouns — Gender. 17? 



This modification is called Gender. Masculine means pertaining 
to males, feminine means pertaining to females, and neuter means 
neither. In grammar, nouns and pronouns denoting males are said to 
be of the Masculine Gender ; those denoting females, of the Femi- 
nine Gender ; and those denoting things without sex, of the Neuter 
Gender. 

Such words as child, parent, friend may be either masculine or fem- 
inine. Some grammarians say that they are of the Common Gender. 



DEFINITIONS. 

Gender is that modification of a noun or pronoun which de- 
notes sex. 

The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex. 
The Feminine Gender denotes the female sex. 
The Neater Gender denotes want of sex. 

Gender- Forms. 

No English nouns have distinctive neuter forms, but a 
few have different forms to distinguish the masculine from 
the feminine. 

The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three 
ways : — 

1st. By a difference in the ending of the words. 

2d. By different words in the compound names. 

3d. By words wholly or radically different. 

Ess * is the most common ending for feminine nouns. 

* The suffix ess came into the English language from the Norman-French. It dis* 
placed the feminine termination of the mother-tongue (A. S. estre, old English ster). 
The original meaning of ster is preserved iu spinster. Er (A. S. ere) was originally 
a masculine suffix ; but it now generally denotes an agent without reference to sex ; 
as, read-er, speak-er. 
8* 



178 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



DIRECTION.— Form the feminine of each of the following" mascu- 
line nouns by adding- ess ;— 

Author, baron, count, deacon, giant, god (see Rule III., p. 318). 
heir, host, Jew, lion, patron, poet, prince (see Rule L, p. 318). 
prior, prophet, shepherd, tailor, tutor. 

(Drop the vowel e or o in the ending of the masculine, and add ess.) 

Actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, conductor, director, editor, 
enchanter, hunter, idolater, instructor, preceptor, tiger, waiter. 
(Drop the masculine er, and add the feminine ess.) 

Adventurer, caterer, governor, murderer, sorcerer. 

DIRECTION.- Learn these forms :- 

Abbot, abbess ; duke, duchess ; emperor, empress ; lad, lass ; mar- 
quis, marchioness ; master, mistress ; negro, negress. 

Ess was formerly more common than now. Such words 
as editor and author are now frequently used to denote 
persons of either sex. 

DIRECTION.— Give five nouns ending in er or or that may be 
applied to either sex. 

The following words, mostly foreign, have various end- 
ings in the feminine. 

DIRECTION— Learn the following forms :— 

Administrator, administratrix ; Augustus, Augusta ; beau, belle 
Charles, Charlotte ; Cornelius, Cornelia ; czar, czarina ; don, donna 
equestrian, equestrienne ; executor, executrix ; Francis, Frances 
George, Georgiana ; Henry, Henrietta : hero, heroine ; infante, 
infanta ; Jesse, Jessie ; Joseph, Josephine : Julius, Julia or Juliet 
landgrave, landgravine : Louis, Louisa or Louise : Paul, Pauline 
signore or signor, signora ; sultan, sultana ; testator, testatrix 
widower, widow. 



Construction of Gender-Forms. 1^9 



In some compounds distinguishing words are prefixed or 
affixed. 

DIRECTION.— Learn the following forms :— 

Billy-goat, nanny-goat ; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit; cock-sparrow, hen- 
sparrow ; Englishman, Englishwoman ; gentleman, gentlewoman ; 
grand-father, grand-mother ; he-bear, she-bear ; landlord, landlady ; 
man-servant, maid-servant ; merman, mermaid ; Mr. Jones, Mrs. or 
Miss Jones ; peacock, peahen. 

Words wholly or radically different are used to distinguish 
the masculine from the feminine. 

DIRECTION.- Learn the following forms :— 

Bachelor, maid ; buck, doe ; drake, duck ; earl, countess ; friar or 
monk, nun ; gander, goose ; hart, roe ; lord, lady ; nephew, niece ; 
sir, madam ; stag, hind ; steer, heifer ; wizard, witch ; youth, damsel or 
maiden. 

The pronoun has three gender-forms — 
masculine he, feminine she, and neuter it.* 



LESSON LXXXIX. 

CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER-FORMS. 

Gender as a matter of orthography is of some importance, 
but in grammar it is chiefly important as involving the cor- 
rect use of the pronouns he, she, and it. 

The names of animals are often treated as masculine or 
feminine without regard to the real sex„ 

* It, although a neuter form, is used idiomatically to refer to a male or a female ; 
as, It was John, It was Mary. 



230 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Examples. — The grizzly bear is the most savage of his race. The 
cat steals upon her prey. 

Remark. — The writer employs he or she according as he fancies the 
animal to possess masculine or feminine characteristics. He is more 
frequently employed than she. 

The neuter pronoun it is often used with reference to 
animals and very young children, the sex being disregarded. 

Examples. — When the deer is alarmed, it gives two or three graceful 
springs. The little child reached out its hand to catch the sunbeam. 

Remark. — It is quite generally used instead of he or she, in refer- 
ring to an animal, unless some masculine or feminine quality seems to 
predominate. 

Inanimate tilings are often represented as living beings, 
that is, they are personified, and are referred to by the pro- 
noun lie or she. 

Example. — The oak shall send his roots abroad and pierce thy 
mould. 

Remark.— The names of objects distinguished for size, power, or sub- 
limity are regarded as masculine ; and the names of those distinguished 
for grace, beauty, gentleness, or productiveness are considered as femi- 
nine. Personification adds beauty and animation to style. 

DIKECTION.— Study what is said above, and then fill each of the 
blanks in the following" sentences with a masculine, a feminine, or a 
neuter pronoun, and in each case give the reason for your selection :— 

1. The forest's leaping panther shall yield spotted hide. 2. The 

catamount lies in the boughs to watch prey. 3. The mocking- 
bird shook from little throat floods of delirious music. 4. The 

wild beast from cavern sprang, the wild bird from grove. 

5. The night-sparrow trills song. 6. The elephant is distinguished 



Nouns and Pronouns— Person— Agreement. 181 



for strength and sagacity. 7. The bat is nocturnal in habits. 

8, The dog is faithful to master. 9. The child was unconscious 

of danger. 10. The fox is noted for cunning. 11. Belgium's 

capital had gathered then beauty and chivalry. 12. Despair 

extends raven wing. 13. Life mocks the idle hate of — — arch- 
enemy, Death. 14. Spring comes forth work of gladness to con- 
trive. 15. Truth is fearless, yet is meek and modest. 

DIRECTION.— Write sentences in which the thing's named below 
shall be personified by means of masculine pronouns :— 

Death, time, whiter, war, sun, river, wind. 

DIRECTION.— "Write sentences in which the thing's named below 
shall be personified by means of feminine pronouns : — . 

Ship, moon, earth, spring, virtue, nature, night, England. 

Caution.— Avoid changing the gender of the pronoun 
when referring to the same antecedent. 

DIRECTION— Correct these errors :- 

1. The polar bear is comparatively rare in menageries, as it suffers 
so much from the heat that he is not easily preserved in confinement. 
2. The cat, when it comes to the light, contracts and. elongates the 
pupil of her eye. 3. Summer clothes herself in green, and decks itself 
with flowers. 4. War leaves his victim on the field, and homes deso- 
lated by it mourn over her cruelty. 



LESSON XC. 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS-PERSON— AGREEMENT. 

Introductory. — (a) I, Paul, have written. 

(b) Paul, thou art beside thyself. 

(c) He was Paul, the apostle, 



282 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



In these sentences the noun Paul represents a person in three differ- 
ent relations to the act of speaking ; — in (a), as speaking ; in (b), as 
spoken to ; in (c), as spoken of. 

Notice that the form of the noun does not change to indicate these 
three relations, but that the personal pronoun changes for each rela- 
tion. 

We use the term Person to denote these three relations and the 
forms that mark them. I, denoting the speaker, is in the First Per- 
son ; thou, denoting the one spoken to, is in the Second Person ; 
and he, denoting the one spoken of, is in the Third Person. 

You now see why I, thou, he, etc. , are called personal pronouns. 
(See Lesson XIV.) 



DEFINITIONS. 

Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes 
the speaker, the one spoken to ? or the one spoken of. 

The First Person denotes the one speaking. 
The Second Person denotes the one spoken to. 
The Third Person denotes the one spoken of. 

Remarks. — A noun is said to be of the first person when joined as an 
explanatory modifier to a pronoun of the first person ; as, "I, John, 
saw these things " '; " We Americans are always in a hurry." * 

A noun is of the second person when used as explanatory of a pro- 
noun of the second person, or when used independently as a term of 
address ; as, "ye crags and peaks" ; " Idle time, John, is ruinous." 

A noun used as subject is always of the third person. 

DIRECTION .—Compose sentences in which there shall be an ex- 
ample of a noun and of a pronoun, used in each of the three persons. 

* It is doubtful whether a noun is ever of the first person. It may be claimed with 
some propriety that, in the sentence 7, John, saw these things, John epeaks of his own 
nnTne. the expression meaning, 7", and my name is John, etc. 



Nouns and Pronouns— Person— Agreement. 183 



Person- Forms. 



Personal pronouns and verbs are the only classes of words 
that have distinctive person-forms. 

DIRECTION.— "From, the forms of the pronouns given on pp. 295, 
296, select and write in one list all that can be used only in the first 
person ; in another list, all the distinctive second-person forms ; and 
in another, all the distinctive third-person forms. 

Person, Number, and Gender-Agreement. 

Person is regarded in grammar because the verb some- 
times varies its form to agree with the person of its subject ; 
as, / see, Thou seest, He sees. 

Am agrees with the first person, singular ; is and verbs 
adding s or es, with the third person, singular. The verb 
has no person-forms for the plural. 

DIRECTION.— Illustrate the agreement of the verb-forms men- 
tioned above. 

Caution. — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
number, gender, and person. 

Remark. — Find from Lesson XLV. how verbs agree with connected 
subjects, and you will understand how pronouns agree in number with 
connected antecedents. 

DIRECTION.— Illustrate the agreement of the pronoun with con- 
nected antecedents. 

Remark. — As we have no singular personal pronoun of the third 
person that may be either masculine or feminine, a plural is often 
incorrectly used instead. 

Examples. — Each boy and girl was requested to name their favorite 
flower (incorrect). Each pupil was requested to name their favorite 



184 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



flower (incorrect). Each boy and girl (or each pupil) was requested to 
name his or her favorite flower (correct). 

When it is not necessary to distinguish the sexes, a singular ante- 
cedent implying both sexes is represented by the masculine pronoun. 

Example. — Every person has their faults (incorrect). Every person 
has his faults (correct). 

Remark. — When connected antecedents are of different persons, 
" you, he, and I " == we ; " you and he " = you. 

In arranging such connected terms, it is generally more polite for 
the speaker to mention first, the one spoken to ; next, the one spoken 
of ; and himself last. (See p. 84, last Exercise.) 

DIMJECTIOj^.— Study the Caution and the Remarks above, and 
then fill each of the blanks in the following* sentences with a per- 
sonal pronoun, giving* reasons for your choice :— 

1. Every one must think for . 2. I gave the horse oats, but he 

would not eat . 3. Both saw fault, but neither would own 

that had done wrong. 4. A person's manners not unfrequently 

indicate morals. 5. Each must rise in turn. 6. Everybody 

has own troubles. 7. The aster and the dahlia are not cultivated 

for fragrance. 8. Neither, the aster nor the dahlia is cultivated 

for fragrance. 9. The book and the paper were found in 

place. 10. Every book and every paper was found in place. 

11. Each day and each hour brings portion of duty. 12. " The 

Merry Wives of Windsor " was presented the first night, but was 

not successful. 13. No kind word and no kind act fails entirely in 

mission. 14. This philosopher and statesman has gone to 

rest. 15. The philosopher and the statesman have gone to rest. 

niMEClION.—Toint out in the sentences above the verbs that have 
distinctive number-forms or person-forms, and justify their use. 

Observation Exercises. — (a) He suspects every man that deals with 
him. (b) He even doubts me, who am his best friend. 



Nouns and Pronouns— Case. ]Q£j 



What is the subject of deals in (a) ? — of am in (b) ? Do relative 
pronouns have person-forms ? How, then, do we determine the per- 
son of who and of that f With what person must am always agree ? — 
deals, and other words that add s or es f What practical aid do you 
here get from knowing that pronouns agree in person with their ante- 
cedents ? 



LESSON XCI. 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS-CASE. 

Introductory. — Review Observation Exercises, Lesson LIL, and the 
introduction to Lesson LIU. Note also what is said of the three case- 
forms, p. 100. 



DEFINITIONS. 

Case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes 
its office in the sentence. 

The Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its 
office as subject or as attribute complement. 

The Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its 
office as possessive modifier. 

The Objective Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its 
office as object complement, or as principal word in a prepositional 
phrase. 

Remark. — A noun or pronoun used independently is in the nomi- 
native case. 

Examples.— I am, dear madam, your friend. Alas, poor Yorich ! 
Liberty, it has fled. 



185 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Remark. — A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the 
same case as the word explained. 

Example. — It was my friend, she of whom I had been speaking. 
This was the Apostle Paul's advice. 

Remark. — A noun or pronoun used as attribute complement of a 
participle or an infinitive is in the same case as- the word to which it 
relates as attribute.* 

Examples. — Being an artist, he appreciated it. I proved it to be 
Mm. 

Explanation. — Artist completes being and relates as attribute to he. 
He may be called the assumed subject of being. 

Him completes be and relates as attribute to it, the object comple- 
ment of proved. It may be called the assumed subject of be. Notice 
the change of case in " I proved that it was he." 

To the Teacher. — The Explanation above will serve as a general guide to the 
use of the light case-form in such constructions; but, if the pupils are sufficiently 
mature, a fuller discussion may here be introduced. See Less. CX., CXV. 

After such discussion, the statement that "a noun or pronoun used as objective 
complement is in the objective case 11 may be added to the Remarks above. This 
construction, however, seldom employs a case-form. 

DIRECTION.— Study carefully the Definitions and the Remarks 
above, and then compose sentences in which a noun or a pronoun 
shall be put in the nominative case in four ways ; in the objective 
in four ways ; in the possessive in two ways. 

Case-Forms of Nouns. 

Nouns have two case-forms, the simple form, common to 
the nominative and the objective case, and the possessive 
form. 

* An attribute complement relating to a possessive is in the nominative case ; as, 
" Tfs being he should make no difference." 



Nouns and Pronouns— Case. 187 

RULE.— The possessive case of nouns is formed in the singu- 
lar by adding to the nominatiye the apostrophe and the letter s 
Cs) ; in the plural, by adding (>) only. If the plural does not end 
in s, the apostrophe and the s are both added. 

Examples. — Boy's, boys', men's. 

Remark. — To avoid an unpleasant succession of hissing sounds, the 
«s in the possessive singular is sometimes omitted ; as, conscience' sake, 
goodness' sake, Achilles' sword, Archimedes' screw (the s in the words 
following the possessive here has its influence). In prose this omission 
of the s should seldom occur. The weight of usage inclines to the s in 
such names as Miss Rounds' s, Mrs. Hemans's, King James's, witness's, 
prince's. Without the s there would be no distinction, in spoken lan- 
guage, between Miss Bound's and Miss Bounds', Mrs. Ileman's and 
Mrs. Hemans'. 

Remark. — Pronounce the ('s) as a separate syllable (= es) when the 
sound of s will not unite with the last sound of the nominative. 

Remark. — When the singular and the plural are alike in the nomi- 
native, some place the apostrophe after the s in the plural to distinguish 
it from the possessive singular ; as, singular, sheep's ; plural, sheeps'. 

DIRECTION.— Study the Rule and the Remarks given above, and 
then write the possessive singular and the possessive plural of each 
of the following" nouns :— 

Actor, farmer, princess, buffalo, mosquito, tyro, cuckoo, ally, attor- 
ney, thief, wolf, chief, dwarf, child, goose, ox, fish, deer, sheep, swine. 

Remark. — Compound nouns always add the possessive sign to the 
last word; as, a "man-of-war's rigging"; "his father-in-law' 's farm." 

Such forms as fathers-in-law's etc. should be avoided. (See the fol- 
lowing Lesson.) 



133 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON X C I I . 

CONSTRUCTION OF POSSESSIVE-FORMS. 

As the possessive is the only case of nouns that has a dis- 
tinctive form, or inflection, it is only with this case that 
mistakes can occur in construction. 

The preposition of with the objective is often used instead 
of the possessive case-form — " David's Psalms " = " Psalms 
of David " 

Remark. — To denote the source from which a thing proceeds, or the 
idea of belonging to, of is used more frequently than ('s). 

The possessive sign ('s) is confined chiefly to the names of persons, 
animals, and things personified. We do not say ''the tree's leaves,'' 
but " the leaves of the tree." 

The possessive sign, however, is often added to names of things 
which we frequently hear personified, or which we wish to dignify, and 
to names of periods of time; as, "the earth's surface," "fortune's 
smile," " eternity's stillness," "a year's interest," "a day's work." 

By the use of of such expressions as "witness's statement," 
" mothers-in-law s faults" may be avoided. 

DIME Cl IO N.— Choosing" the form that seems best, make the follow- 
ing" terms denote possession, and then join them as modifiers to 
appropriate nouns :— 

Sun, ocean, summer, book, chair, enemy, eagle, torrent, months, 
hours, minute, princess, Socrates, sisters-in-law, lookers-on. 

Caution.— The relation of possession maybe expressed not 
only by (V) and of but by the use of such phrases as belong- 
ing to, property of etc., or of such verbs as have, hold, 
possess, etc. In constructing sentences be careful to secure 
smoothness and clearness by taking advantage of these dif- 
ferent forms. 



Construction of Possessive-Forms. 289 



DIRECTION.— Improve the following" sentences :— 

1. This is my wife's father's opinion. 

Correction. — This is the opinion of my wife's father (or held by m$ 
wife's father). 

2. This is my wife's father's farm. 3. France's and England's inter- 
ests differ widely. 4. Frederick the Great was the son of the daughter 
of George L, of England. 5. My brother's wife's sister's drawings 
have been much admired. 6. The drawings of the sister of the wife of 
my brother have been much admired. 

DIKE CTI ON. —Make original sentences to illustrate all the ways of 
denoting 1 possession, mentioned above. 

Caution. — Groups of words that may be treated as com- 
pound terms add the possessive sign to the last word only. 

Examples. — Peter - the Hermit's eloquence ; Dombey and Son's 
office ; the Queen of England's palace ; everybody else's business. 

Remarks. — This Caution applies to a possessive with an explanatory 
modifier, whether the two form a compound term or not ; as, * ' I called 
at Tom the tinker's." The sign, however, must not be far removed 
from the principal possessive. "That language is Homer, the greatest 
poet of antiquity's," is bad. Add the sign to Homer alone, or, better 
still, use of to denote the possession. 

Euphony requires that the possessive sign should generally stand 
immediately before the name (expressed or understood) of the thing 
possessed. 

DIRECTION.— Construct sentences in which the following* groups 
shall be made to indicate possession :— 

Frederick the Great ; Fields, Osgood, & Co. ; the Duke of Welling' 
ton ; Wolsey, the Cardinal. 



290 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



DIHJECTIOK.— Study the Cautions and Remarks above, and correct 
the following :— 

7. This is Tennyson's, the poet's, home. 8. I took tea at Brown's, 
my old friend and schoolmate's. 9. This belongs to Victoria's, Queen 
of England's, dominion. 10. This province is Victoria's, Queen of 
England's. 11. This was Franklin's motto, the distinguished philos- 
ophers and statesman's. 

Caution.— When several possessive nouns modify the same 
word and imply common possession, the possessive sign is 
added to the last only. If they modify different words, 
expressed or understood, the sign is added to each. 

Explanation. — " William and Henry's boat," "William's and Hen- 
ry's boat." In the first example, William and Henry are represented 
as jointly owning a boat ; in the second, each is represented as owning 
a separate boat — boat is understood after William's. 

Remark. — When the different possessors are thought of as separate 
or opposed, the sign may be repeated, although joint possession is 
implied; as, "He was his father's, mother's, and sister's favorite;" 
" He was the king's, as well as the people's, favorite." 

DIJtJECTION.— Correct these errors, and give your reasons :— 

12. The Bank of England was established in William's and Mary's 
reign. 13. This was James's, Charles's, and Robert's estate. 14. 
America was discovered during Ferdinand's and Isabella's reign. 15. 
We were comparing Caesar and Napoleon's victories. 16. This was the 
sage and the poet's theme. 

Explanation. — If an article precedes each possessive, the sign is 
repeated. 

17. It was the king, not the people's, choice. 18. They are Thomas, 
as well as James's, books. 



Case-Forms- Pronouns. 191i 



Caution.— Ambiguity may often be prevented by changing 
the assumed subject of a participle from a nominative or an 
.objective to a possessive. 

DlttECTIOJr.-Covrect these errors :— 

19. The writer being* a scholar is not doubted. 

Correction. — This is ambiguous, as it may mean either that the 
writer is not doubted, because he is a scholar, or that the writer's 
scholarship is not doubted. It should be, " The writer's being a scholar 
is not doubted," or " That the writer is a scholar is not doubted." 

20. I have no doubt of the writer being a scholar. 21. No one ever 
heard of that man running for office. 22. Brown being a politician 
prevented his election. 28. I do not doubt him being sincere. 24. 
Grouchy being behind time decided the fate of Waterloo. 



LESSON XCI I I. 

CASE-FORMS-PRONOUNS. 

The pronouns I, thou, he, she, and who are the only 
words in the language that have each three different case- 
forms. 

(For " Declensions/' see pp. 295, 296.) 

Construction of Case-Forms— Pronouns. 

Caution.— I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, and who are 
nominative forms. 
Me, us, thee, him, her,* them, and tvhom are objective 

forms. 

* Her is also a possessive. 



292 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Remark. — The eight nominative forms and the seven objective forms 
here given are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in 
the language. All the "rules of syntax" given in the grammars to 
guide in the use of the nominative and the objective case apply, prac- 
tically, only to these fifteen forms. 

Who and whom retain their distinctive uses as case-forms when com- 
pounded with ever or soever ; but not so with personal pronouns com- 
pounded with self. 

DIRECTION.— Study carefully the definitions and principles given 
in Lesson XCI.; then fill the following- blanks with the case-forms 
found above (using compound relatives in (24)and (25) ), and give your 
reasons in every instance :— 

1. It is not you are in love with, 2. She was neither better bred 

nor wiser than you or . 3. servest thou under ? 4. It was 

not , it was . 5. Its being should make no difference. 

6. and — — are of the same age. 7. that study grammar 

talk no better than -. 8. I am not so old as ; she is older than 

by ten years. 9. He was angry, and too. 10. Who will go? 

. 11. It is n't for such as to sit with the rulers of the land. 

12. Not one in a thousand could have done it so well as . 13. 

* being a stranger, they easily misled him. 14. Oh, happy ! 

surrounded thus with blessings. 15. It was Joseph, Pharaoh 

promoted. 16. I referred to my old friend, of whom I so often 

speak. 17. You have seen Cassio and together. 18. Between 

you and , I believe that he is losing his mind. 19. should I 

meet the other day but my old friend ? 20. did he refer to, , 

or ? 21. did he choose ? 22. Did he choose you and ? 

23. that is idle and mischievous reprove. 24. We will refer it to 

you may choose. 25. the court favors is safe. 26. that 

are diligent I -will reward. 27. Scotland and did in each other 

live. 28. My hour is come, but not to render up my soul to such as 

* A noun or pronoun used as the assumed subject of a participle, without gram- 
matical connection with the rest of the sentence, is said to be independent. 



Construction of Case-Forms-Review. I93 



. 29. 1 knew that it was . 30. I knew it to be . 31. — 

did you suppose it to be ? 32. did you suppose it was ? 33. 

took that tall man to be . 34. I thought that tall man was 



LESSON XCIV. 

CONSTRUCTION OF CASE-FORMS-REVIEW. 
DIRECTION .— Correct these errors, and give your reasons :— 
Explanation. — The possessive forms in (8) and (23) are regular, but 
they are hard to pronounce and unpleasant to the ear. 

1. Who was Joseph's and Benjamin's mother ? 2. It did not occur 
during Washington, Jefferson, or Adams's administration. 3. I con- 
sulted Webster, Worcester, and Walker's dictionary. 4. This state 
was south of Mason's and Dixon's line. 5. These are neither George 
nor Fanny's books. 6. Howard's, the philanthropist's, life was a noble 
one. 7. It is Othello's pleasure, our noble and valiant general's. 
8. He visited his sons-in-law's homes. 9. A valuable horse of my friend 
William's father's was killed. 10. For Herodias's sake, his brother 
Philip's wife. 11. For the queen's sake, his sister's. 12. Peter's, 
John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. 13. He spoke 
of you studying Latin. 14. It being difficult did not deter him. 15. 
What need is there of the man swearing ? 16. I am opposed to the 
gentleman speaking again. 17. He thought it was us. 18. Who did 
you say you spoke to ? 19. Whom did you say it was ? 20. I shall not 
learn my duty from such as thee. 21. A lady entered, whom I after- 
wards found was Miss B. 22. A lady entered, who I afterwards found 
to be Miss B. 23. Ask somebody's else opinion. 24. Let him be 
whom he may. 25. I am sure it could not have been them. 26. I 
understood it to be they. 27. It is not him whom you thought it was. 
28. Let you and I try it. 29. All enjoyed themselves, us excepted. 
30. Us boys enjoy the holidays. 31. It was Virgil, him who wrote the 
iEneid. 32. You thought him to be I. 33. You thought that he 
was me. 

13 



^94 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON XCV. 

THE NOUN AND THE PRONOUN REVIEWED. 

Define a noun and the two classes of nouns. Explain and illustrate 
collective and abstract nouns. 

Define a pronoun and the four classes of pronouns. Mention the 
simple personal pronouns, the compound personal pronouns, the simple 
relative pronouns, the compound relative pronouns, the interrogative 
pronouns, and some of the adjective pronouns. What is an ante- 
cedent ? Use which as an adjective, as a relative pronoun, as a direct 
interrogative pronoun, and as an indirect interrogative pronoun. Illus- 
trate the Cautions that guide in the use of pronouns. 

What two ways of varying a thought are mentioned in Lesson 
LXXXV. ? Explain and illustrate what is meant by inflections. What 
are Modifications 9 

What is Number 9 Define the singular and the plural number. 
How is the plural of nouns regularly formed ? Illustrate all the varia- 
tions of this Rule that are found in Lesson LXXXY. Give the plural 
of some nouns adopted from other languages. Mention and illustrate 
the different ways of forming the plural of compound nouns. Illus- 
trate the pluralizing of letters, figures, etc. Give examples of nouns 
having each two plural forms differing in meaning ; — of nouns and 
pronouns having the same form in both numbers ; — of nouns that have 
no plural ; — of nouns that are always plural. Illustrate what is taught 
concerning the number of collective nouns. In what ways may the 
number of a noun be determined ? 

Explain the meaning of masculine, feminine, and neuter. What is 
Gender 9 Define the three genders. What is said of such words as 
child, neighbor, etc. ? Have English nouns distinctive neuter forms ? 
In what ways may the masculine be distinguished from the feminine ? 
Illustrate. What is said of the gender of such words as editor and 
author 9 Give three gender forms of the pronoun. Of what impor- 
tance is gender in grammar ? Show how the masculine, the feminine, 



Review— Continued. ^95 



and the neuter pronoun are used in referring to animals and young 
children. Show how the masculine and the feminine pronoun are 
used in personification. Illustrate the Caution in regard to changing 
the gender of the pronoun. 



LESSON XCVI. 

REVIEW-CONTINUED. 

In what different relations to the act of speaking may a person be 
represented ? What is Person f Define the three persons. When is 
a noun found in the first person ?- — in the second ? A noun used as 
subject is of what person ? A subject in the t first or the second person 
must be what part of speech '? What classes of words have distinc- 
tive person forms ? Why is person regarded in grammar ? Illustrate. 
Illustrate the Caution in regard to the agreement of pronouns. Show 
how this Caution applies to connected antecedents. What lack in our 
language often leads to a violation of this Caution ? Show how a 
pronoun may agree with a singular antecedent implying both sexes. 
What is said about connected terms of different persons ? 

What is Case 9 Define the three cases. In what case is a noun 01 
pronoun used independently ? — a noun or pronoun used as explanatory 
modifier ? — a noun or pronoun used as attribute complement of a 
participle or an infinitive ? Illustrate the last three answers. What 
case-forms have nouns ? Give the Rule for forming the possessive case 
of nouns. Give and explain some common exceptions. What may 
take the place of the possessive sign ? Illustrate, showing when one is 
preferred to the other. Illustrate fully the Cautions that guide in the 
use of possessive forms. What words have each three different case- 
forms ? Give all the nominative forms ; — all the objective forms. Give 
and explain constructions in which these forms are liable to be incor- 
rectly used. 



196 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON XCVII. 

PARSING-NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Parsing a word is giving its classification, modifications, 
and syntax (i. e., its relation to other words). 

DIRECTION,— Select and parse in full all the nouns and pronouns 
in the sentences for analysis, Lesson LIII. 

Model for Written Parsing. — Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was 
beheaded by James L 



CLASSIFICATION. 




MODIFICATIONS. 




SYNTAX. 


Nouns. 


Kind. 


Person. 


Number. 


Gender. 


Case. 




Elizabeth's 


Prop. 


3d. 


Sing. 


Fern. 


Pos. 


Pos. Mod. of favorite. 


favorite 


Com. 


(C 




Mas. 


Nom. 


Sub. of was beheaded. 


Raleigh 


Prop. 


" 


" 


" 


" 


Exp. Mod. of favorite. 


James I. 


" 


*' 


" 


" 


Obj. 


Prin. word a Her by. 



Oral Parsing. — Elizabeth's is a noun, proper, third, singular, femi- 
nine, possessive, possessive modifier of favorite. 

To the Teacher. — For additional exercises in parsing nouns and pronouns, see 
Lessons 46, 49, 50, 54, 55, 53, 61, 63, 68, etc. For advanced work see pp. 280-285. For 
* l Rules of Syntax 1 ' see p. 234. 



Parsing— Nouns and Pronouns. 



197 



GENERAL REVIEW. 



To the Teacher.— These Schemes and questions under the head of General Review 
are especially designed to aid in securing an outline of technical grammar. 

The questions given below may be made to call for minute details or only for out- 
lines. In some cases a single 'question may suffice for a whole lesson. 



Scheme for the Noun. 

{The numbers refer to Lessons.) 



NOUN, 



Uses. 



Classes. 



Subject (8). 

Object Complement (48). 

Attribute Complement (49). 

Objective Complement (HO). 

Adjective Modifier (53). 

Adverb Modifier (ill). 
j Prin. word in Prep. Phrase (37, 
[ Independent (46, 91). 

Common (78). 

{Abstract and Collective.) 

Proper (78). 



Modifications. 



Number. 



Gender. 



Person. 



Case. 



j Singular (85-87). 
( Plural (85-87). 

Masculine (88, 89). 
Feminine (88, 89). 
( Neuter (88, 89). 

( First (90). 
\ Second (90). 
( Third (90). 

C Nominative (91, 93). 
< Possessive (91, 92). 
( Objective (91, 93). 



Questions on the Noun. 

1. Define the noun and its classes.— Lesson 78. 

2. Name and define the modifications of the noun.— Less. 85, 
90, 91. 



198 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



8. Name and define the several numbers, genders, persons, and cases. 
—Less. 85, 88, 90, 91. 

4. Give and illustrate the several ways of forming the plural. 
—Less. 85, 86, 87. 

5. Give and illustrate the several ways of distinguishing the genders. 
—Less. 88. 

6. How is the possessive case formed ? — Less. 91. 

7. Give and illustrate the principles that guide in the use of the pos- 
sessive forms. — Less. 92. 



Scheme for the Pronoun. 

" Uses. — Same as those of the Noun. 
Personal (78, 79). 



PRONOUNS. «{ 



Classes. J ? e f lative i 78 ' ^ 

j Interrogative (78). 

( Adjective (78, 79). 

Modifications. — Same as those of the Noun (85, 
87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93). 



Questions on the Pronoun. 

1. Define the pronoun and its classes, and give the lists. — Less. 78. 

2. Decline the several pronouns. — Page 295. 

3. Give and illustrate the principles that guide in the use of the 
different pronouns. — Less. 79. 

4. Give and illustrate the principles that guide in the use of the 
number-forms, the gender-forms, and the case-forms. — Less. 87, 89, 
90, 93. 



LESSON XCVII I . 

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS-COMPARISON. 

Introductory. — See Lesson XXXIII. 

Notice that in saying, "This pencil is longer than that," or "This 



Adjectives and Adverbs— Comparison. 199 



pencil is the longest of the five," we do not say that any one of the pen- 
cils is really long. The comparative and superlative forms express 
only the relative degree of the quality. 

Various degrees of quality may be expressed by prefixing adverbs ; 
as, "very, exceedingly, or rather long" ; "far, still, much, or some- 
what longer " ; " by far or much the longest." 



Adjectives and Adverbs have one modification.* 

DEFINITIONS. 

Comparison is a modification of the adjective or the adverb 
to express the relative degree of the quality (or quantity) in the 
things compared. 

The Positive Degree expresses the simple quality. 

The Comparative Degree expresses a greater or a less degree 
of the quality. 

The Superlative Degree expresses the greatest or the least 
degree of the quality. 

Degree-Forms. 

EULE.— Adjectives are regularly compared by adding er to the 
positive to form the comparative, and est to the positive to form 
the superlative. 

Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally com- 
pared by prefixing more and most. This method is often 
used with adjectives of two syllables and sometimes with 
those of one. 

* Two adjectives, this and that, have number-forms— this, these; that, those. 



200 Modifications ol the Parts of Speech. 



Remark. — More beautiful, most beautiful, etc. can hardly be called 
degree-forms of the adjective. The adverbs more and most have the 
degree-forms, and in parsing they may be regarded as separate words. 
The adjective, however, is varied in sense the same as when the 
inflections er and est are added. 

Remark. — Of the two forms of comparison, that which is more easily 
pronounced and is more agreeable to the ear is to be preferred ; as, 
most famous (not famousest), more eloquent (not eloquenter). 

Degrees of diminution are exj)ressed by prefixing less and 
least ; as, valuable, less valuable, least valuable. 

Most definitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot 
be compared, as their meaning will not admit of different 
degrees. 

DIRECTION.— "From this list of adjectives select those that cannot 
be compared, and compare those that remain :— 

(Observe the Rules for Spelling, p. 318). 

Wooden, English, unwelcome, physical, one, that, common, happy, 
able, polite, sad, sweet, vertical, two-wheeled, infinite, witty, humble, 
any, trim, intemperate, undeviating, simple, holy, lunar, superior. 

Some adverbs are compared by adding er and est ; and 
some, by prefixing more and most. 

DIKJECTIO N.— Compare the following: :— 

Early, easily, fast, firmly, foolishly, late, long, often, soon, wisely. 

Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their com- 
parison. 

I>IItJECTION.—Ijea,m to compare the following- adjectives and 
adverbs :— 



Adjectives and Adverbs— Comparison. 



201 



Adjectives Irregularly Compared. 



Comp. 
after, 




(Forth), 

Good, 

Hind, 

(In), 
Late, 



inner, 



Superlative. 
r aftmost or 
( aftermost. 



worst. 

farthest or 
farthermost, 
foremost or 
first. 
( furthest or 
9 ( furthermost, 
better, best. 

( hindmost or 

( hindermost. 

inmost or 

innermost. 

later or c latest or 

latter, ( last. 



Pos, 

Little, 



H 



Comp. 
less or 
lesser, 



Many, \ 

,.. . y more, 
Much, J ' 



Near, 
Old, 



nearer, 

( older or 
( elder, 



(Out), { 

Under, 

(UP), 
Top, 



outer or 
utter, 



upper, 



Superlative. 
least. 

most. 

i nearest or 
\ next, 
f oldest or 
\ eldest, 
f outmost or 
J outermost, 
I utmost or 
I uttermost. 
• undermost. 
c upmost or 
\ uppermost, 
topmost. 



Adverbs Irregularly Compared. 



Pos. Comp. 


Superlative. 


Pos. 


Comp. 


Superlative, 


Badly, ) 

in, } worse ' 


worst. 


Little, 
Much, 


less, 
more, 


least, 
most. 


Far, farther, 


farthest. 


Well, 


better, 


best. 


Forth, further, 


furthest. 


• 







* The words enclosed in curves are adverbs— the adjectives following having no 
positive form. 

t For the comparative and the superlative of little, in the sense of small in size, 
smaller and smallest are substituted ; as, little boy, smaller boy, smallest boy. 



202 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON XCIX. 

CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPER- 
LATIVES. 

Caution.-*Iii stating a comparison avoid comparing a 
thing with itself.* 

Remark. — The comparative degree refers to two things (or sets of 
things) as distinct from each other, and implies that one has more of 
the quality than the other. The comparative degree is generally fol- 
lowed by than.]; 

DIJRJECTION.— Study the Caution and Remark, and correct these 
errors :— 

1. London is larger than any city in Europe. 

Correction. — The second term of comparison, any city in Europe, 
includes London, and so London is represented as being larger than 
itself. It should be, " London is larger than any other city in Europe,'" 
or "London is the largest city in Europe." 

2. China has a greater population than any nation on the globe. 
3. I like this book better than any book I have seen. 4. There is no 
metal so useful as iron. (A comparison is here stated, although no 
degree form is employed.) 

5, All the metals are less useful than iron. 6. Time ought, above 
all kinds of property, to be free from invasion. 

Caution.— In using the superlative degree be careful to 

* A thing may, of course, be compared with itself as existing under different con- 
ditions ; as, " The star is brighter to-night " ; " The grass is greener to-day." 

t The comparative is generally used with reference to two things only, but it may 
be used to compare one thing with a number of things taken separately or together ; 
as, " He is no better than other men" ; "It contains more than all the others com/ 
binedy 



Construetion of Comparatives and Superlatives. 203 



laake tne latter term of the comparison, or the term intro- 
duced by of, include the former. 

Remark. — The superlative degree refers to one thing (or set of things) 
as belonging to a group or class, and as having more of the quality 
than any of the rest. The superlative is generally followed by 0/.* 

niRJECTION.— Study the Caution and the Bemark, and correct 
these errors :— 

7. Solomon was the wisest of all the other Hebrew kings. 

Correction. — Of (= belonging to) represents Solomon as belonging to 
a group of kings, and other excludes him from this group — a contradic- 
tion in terms. It should be, ''Solomon was the wisest of Hebrew 
kings," or "Solomon was wiser than any other Hebrew king." 

8. Of all the other books I have examined, this is the most satisfac- 
tory. 9. Profane swearing is, of all other vices, the most inexcusable. 
10. He was the most active of all his companions. (He was not one of 
his own companions.) 

11. This was the most satisfactory of any preceding effort. 

Caution.— Avoid double comparatives and double super- 
latives,, and the comparison of adjectives whose meaning will 
not admit of different degrees, f 

* The superlative is generally used with reference to more than two things, but it 
is sometimes used by good writers to compare two ; as, "Which is the best of the 
two?" 

t Double comparatives and double superlatives were formerly used by good writers 
for the sake of emphasis ; as, Our worser thoughts Heaven mend !— Shakespeare. 
The most straitest sect—Bible. 

Many words which grammarians have considered incapable of comparison are used 
in a sense short of their literal meaning, and are compared by good writers ; as, Mv 
chiefest entertainment.— Sheridan. The chief est prize. —Byron. Divinest Melancholy. 
—Milton. Extremest hell.— Whittier. Most perfect harmony. —Longfellow. Less per- 
fect imitaXAori&.—Macaulay. It must be remembered that these are exceptional 
forms. 



204 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



DIRECTION.— Correct these errors :— 

12. A more healthier location cannot be found. 13. He took the 
longest, but the most pleasantest, route. 14. Draw that line more 
perpendicular. 

Correction. — Draw that line perpendicular, or more nearly perpen- 
dicular. 

15. The opinion is becoming more universal. 16. A worser evil 
awaits us. 17. The most principal point was entirely overlooked. 
18. That form of expression is more preferable. 

Caution. — When an adjective denoting one or more than 
one is joined to a noun, the adjective and the noun must 
agree. 

Remark.— A numeral denoting more than one may be prefixed to a 
singular noun to form a compound adjective ; as, "a ten- foot pole" 
(not " a ten- feet pole " ), " a three-ce?it stamp." 

DIRECTION.- Study the Caution and the Remark and correct 
these errors :— 

19. These kind of people will never be satisfied. 20. The room is fif- 
teen foot square ; I measured it with a two-feet rule. 21. The farmer 
exchanged five barrel of potatoes for fifty pound of sugar. 22. These 
sort of expressions should be avoided. 23. We were traveling at the 
rate of forty mile an hour. 24. Remove this ashes and put away that 
tongs. 

Miscellaneous. 

25. He was more active than any other of his companions. 

Correction. — As he is not one of his own companions, other is 
unnecessary. 

26. He did more to accomplish this result than any other man that 
preceded or followed him. 27. The younger of the three sisters is the 



The Adjective and the Adverb Reviewed. 



205 



prettier. (This is the construction which requires the superlative. 
See the second Remark in this Lesson.) 

28. This result, of all others, is most to be dreaded. 29. She was 
willing to take a more humbler part. 30. Solomon was wiser than any 
of the ancient kings. 31. This is the more preferable form. 32. 
Which are the two more important ranges of mountains in North 
America ? 



LESSON C 



THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB REVIEWED. 

Define an adjective and the two classes of adjectives. What words 
are called Articles f Illustrate the Cautions that guide in the use of 
adjectives. 

Define an adverb. Define and illustrate the five classes of adverbs. 
Illustrate the Cautions that guide in the use of adverbs. 

What one modification have adjectives and adverbs ? What is Com- 
parison ? Define the three degrees. How are adjectives and adverbs 
regularly compared ? Illustrate. What words are generally compared 
by prefixing more and most f Illustrate. How are degrees of diminu- 
tion expressed ? Illustrate. Illustrate the irregular comparison of 
adjectives and adverbs. Show why some adjectives and adverbs can- 
not be compared. 

Parsing 1 — Adjectives and Adverbs. 
DIRECTION.— Select and parse in full all the adjectives and the 
adverbs found in the two stanzas, Lesson XXXIV. 

Model for Written Parsing. — All the dewy glades are still. 



CLASSIFICATION. 


MODIFICATION. 


SYNTAX. 


Adjectives. 

All 
the 
dewy 
still 


Kind. 
Def. 

Des. 


Beg. of Comp. m 
Pos. 

it 


Modifier of glades 

ti it tt 

tt tt tt 
Completes are and modifies glades. 



206 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Oral Parsing. — Still is an adjective, descriptive, positive, completes 
are and modifies glades. 

To the Teacher.— The form for parsing adverbs is similar to the above. For 
additional exercises in parsing adjectives and adverbs, see Lessons 25, 30, 31, 41, 46, 
49, 55, 56, 61, etc. 



GENERAL REVIEW. 
Scheme for the Adjective. 

( The numbers refer to Lessons.) 



Uses. 



ADJECTIVE. ■{ Classes, 



( Modifier (25, 26). 

-j Attribute Complement (49). 

( Objective Complement (110). 

Descriptive (51, 80). 
Definitive (80). 



( Pos. Degree ) 
Modification. — Comparison. •< Comp. " >■ (98, 99). 
{ Sup. << ) 



Questions on the Adjective. 

1. Define the adjective and its classes. — Less. 80. 

2. Define comparison and the degrees of comparison. — Less. 98. 

3. Give and illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods 
of comparison. — Less. 98. 

4. Give and illustrate the principles that guide in the use of adjec- 
tives. — Less. 51, 80. 

5. Give and illustrate the principles that guide in the use of com 
parative and superlative forms. — Less. 99. 

Scheme for the Adverb. 

Time. ] 



ADVERB. 



Place. 
Classes. ■{ Degree. ^ (81) 

Manner. 
^ Cause. j 

i Pos. Deg. 
Modification. — Comparison. -< Comp. " 
( Sup. " 



Modifications of the Verb. 20? 



Questions on the Adverb. 



1. Define the adverb and its classes. — Less. 81. 

2. (rive and illustrate the principles that guide in the use of 
adverbs. — Less. 81. 

3. Illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of com- 
parison. — Less. 98. 

4. Give and illustrate the principles that guide in the use of com- 
parative and superlative forms. — Less. 99. 



LESSON CI. 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 
Voice. 

Introductory. — " He picked a rose." "A rose was picked by him." 
The same thing is here told in two ways. The first verb, picked, shows 
that the subject names the actor ; the second Verb, was picked, shows 
that the subject names the thing acted upon. These different forms 
and uses of the verb constitute the modification called Voice. The 
first form is in the Active Voice ; the second is in the Passive 
Voice. 

The active voice is used when the agent, or actor, is to be made prom- 
inent ; the passive, when the thing acted upon is to be made prominent. 
The passive voice may be used when the agent is unknown, or when, 
for any reason, we do not care to name it ; as, " The ship was 
wrecked " ; " Money is coined." 



DEFINITIONS. 

Voice is that modification of the transitive verb which shows 
whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted upon. 



208 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



The Active Voice shows that the subject names the actor. 

The Passive Voice shows that the subject names the thing 
acted upon. 

The passive form is compound, and may be resolved into 
an asserting word (some form of the verb be), and an attri- 
bute complement (a past participle of a transitive verb). 

An expression consisting of an asserting word followed by 
an adjective complement or by a participle used adjectively 
may be mistaken for a verb in the passive voice. 

Examples. — The coat was sometimes worn by Joseph {was worn— 
passive voice). The coat was badly worn {was — incomplete predicate, 
worn — adjective complement). 

Remark. — To test the passive voice, note whether the one named by 
the subject is acted upon, whether the verb may be followed by by 
before the name of the agent, and whether the subject will become the 
object complement when the verb is changed to the active voice. 

DIItECTION.— Tell which of the following" completed predicates 
may be treated as single verbs, and which should be resolved into 
incomplete predicates and attribute complements :— 

1. The lady is accomplished. 2. This task was not accomplished in 
a day. 3. Are you prepared to recite ? 4. Dinner was soon prepared. 
5. A shadow was mistaken for a foot-bridge. 6. You are mistaken. 
7. The man was drunk before the wine was drunk. 8. The house is 
situated on the bank of the river. 9. I am obliged to you. 10. I am 
obliged to do this. 11. The horse is tired. 12. A fool and his money 
are soon parted. 13. The tower is inclined. 14. My body is inclined 
by years. 

Construction— Voice. 

The object complement of a verb in the active voice becomes 
the subject when the verb is changed to the passive voice. 



Modifications of the Verb. 209 



Example. — The Danes invaded England — England was invaded by 
the Danes. 

Remark. — You will notice that in the first sentence the agent is 
made prominent ; in the second sentence, the receiver, 

DIRECTION.— In. each of these sentences change the voice of the 
transitive verb without altering* the meaning" of the sentence, and 
note the other changes that occur :— 

15. Mercury, the messenger of the gods, wore a winged cap and 
winged shoes. 16. When the Saxons subdued the Britons, they intro- 
duced into England their own language, which was a dialect of the 
Teutonic. 17. My wife was chosen as her wedding dress was chosen, 
not for a fine, glossy surface, but for such qualities as would wear 
well. 18, Bacchus, the god of wine, was worshiped in many parts of 
Greece and Rome. 19. The minds of children are dressed by their 
parents as their bodies are dressed — in the prevailing fashion. 20. 
Harvey, an English physician, discovered that blood circulates. 21. 
The luxury of Capua, more powerful than the Roman legions, van- 
quished the victorious Carthaginians. 22. His eloquence had struck 
them dumb. 

An intransitive verb is sometimes made transitive in the 
passive voice by the aid of a preposition. 

Example. — All his friends laughed at him = He was laughed at 
(ridiculed) by all his friends. 

Remark. — Was laughed at may be treated as one verb. Some gram- 
marians, however, would call at an adverb. 

DIRECTION.— Change the voice of the following verbs :— 

23. This artful fellow has imposed upon us all. 24. The speaker 
did not even touch upon this topic. 25. He dropped the matter there, 
and did not refer to it afterward. 

Remark. — A noun or pronoun used adverbially (see Less. CXI.) 
with a' verb in the active voice is sometimes irregularly made the sub- 
14 



210 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



jeet when the verb is changed to the passive, the object complement of 
the active being retained to complete the passive ; as, " The porter 
refused (to) Mm admittance" = "He was refused admittance by the 
porter." * (Some would treat admittance as an adverbial modifier of 
ivas refused.) 

DIRECTION.— Change the voice of the transitive verbs in these 
sentences, and note the other changes that occur :— 

26. He was offered a pension by the government. 27. I was asked 
mat question yesterday. 28. We must be allowed the privilege of 
minking for ourselves. 

Remark. — The following sentences present a peculiar idiomatic con- 
struction. A transitive verb which, in the active voice, is followed by 
an object complement and a prepositional phrase, takes, in the passive, 
the principal word of the phrase for its subject, retaining the comple- 
ment and the preposition to complete its meaning; as, "They took 
care of it " = "It was taken care of." 

DIRECTION.— Put the following* sentences into several different 
forms, and determine which is the best :— 

29. His original purpose was lost sight of f (forgotten). 30. Such 
talents should be made much of. 31. He was taken care of by his 
friends. 32. Some of his characters have been found fault with as 
insipid. 

*Some grammarians condemn this construction. It is true that it is a violation 
of the general analogies, or laws, of language ; but that it is an idiom of our lan- 
guage, established by good usage, is beyond controversy. 

t Some would parse of as an adverb relating to was lost, and sight as a noun used 
adverbially to modify was lost ; others would treat sight as an object [complement] 
of was lost ; others w T ould call ivas lost sight of a compound verb ; and others, claim- 
ing that the logical relation of these words is not lost by a change of position, analyze 
the expression as if arranged thus : Sight of his original purpose was lost. 

It seems to us that any separate disposition of these predicate words is unsatisfac- 
tory. 

Mr. Goold Brown pronounces this construction "an unparsable synchysis, a vile 
snarl, which no grammarian should hesitate to condemn," 



Modifications of the Verb— Continued. 211 



LESSON CI I. 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB— CONTINUED. 
Mode, Tense, Number, and Person. 

Introductory. — (a) James walks, (b) James may walk. 

(c) If James ivalk out, he will improve. 

(d) James, walk out. 

The act of walking is here asserted in four different ways ; — in (a), 
as an actual fact ; , in (b), as a possible fact ; in (c), as merely thought 
of, without regard to being or becoming a fact ; in (d), not as a fact, 
but only as a command — James is ordered to make it a fact. 

Mode (or mood) means manner. In grammar it denotes the manner 
of asserting. You have . learned something about the four modes. 
Determine, now, by aid of the names denned below, the Mode of walk 
in each of the four sentences above. 

The Infinitive and the Participle do net assert. (See Lessons LY. 
and LYI.) 

(e) I walk, (f) I walked, (g) I shall walk, 

(h) I have walked out to-day. 

ii) I had walked when he called. 

(j) I shall have walked out by to-morrow. 

We naturally divide time into present, past, and future, and we 

find our language provided with three forms of the verb to indicate 
these divisions. Explain the time of the action expressed in (e), in 
If), and in (g). 

We also have three forms of the verb to express action as completed 
in the present (or some period including the present), in the past, and 
in the future. Explain the time denoted in (h), in (i), and in (/). 

Tense means time. Determine by aid of the names defined below 
the Tense of walk in the six sentences above. (Notice that, in these 
names, perfect is used instead of completed.) 



212 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



(For person-forms and number-forms of the verb, see Lessons XX. 

and XC.) 

To the Teacher.— Let the pupils illustrate the different mode-forms and tense- 
forms, and explain the manner of assertion and the time of the action, that the lan- 
guage of the definitions may not be a mere matter of memory. 



DEFINITIONS. 

Mode is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner 
of asserting the action or being. 

The Indicative Mode asserts the action or being as a fact. 

The Potential Mode asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or 
necessity of acting or being. 

The Subjunctive Mode asserts the action or being as a mere 
condition, supposition, or wish. 

The Imperative Mode asserts the action or being as a com- 
mand or an entreaty. 



The Infinitive is a form of the verb which names the action 01 
being in a general way, without asserting it of anything. 

The Participle is a form of the verb partaking of the nature 
of an adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as 
assumed. 

The Present Participle denotes action or being as continuing 
at the time indicated by the predicate. 

The Past Participle denotes action or being as past or com- 
pleted at the time indicated by the predicate. 

The Past Perfect Participle denotes action or being as com- 
pleted at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate. 



Forms of the Verb. 213 



Tense is that modification of the verb which expresses the time 
of the action or being. 

The Present Tense expresses action or being as present. 

The Past Tense expresses action or being as past. 

The Future Tense expresses action or being as yet to come. 

The Present Perfect Tense expresses action or being as com- 
pleted at the present time. 

The Past Perfect Tense expresses action or being as com- 
pleted at some past time. 

The Future Perfect Tense expresses action or being to be 
completed at some future time. 



Number and Person of a verb are those modifications that 
show its agreement with the number and person of its subject. 



LESSON CIII- 

FORMS OF THE VERB. 
DEFINITIONS. 

Conjugation is the regular arrangement of the forms of the 
verb. 

Synopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of one num- 
ber and person in all the modes and tenses. 

Auxiliary Verbs are those that help in the conjugation of 
other verbs. 

The auxiliaries are do, did, be (with all its variations), 



214 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



have, had, shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could^ 
and must. 

The Principal Parts of a verb, or those from which the other 
parts are derived, are the present indicative or the present infini- 
tive, the past indicative, and the past participle. 

Remark. — The present participle is sometimes given as a principal 
part. It may always be formed from the present tense by adding ing. 

In adding ing and other terminations, the Rules for Spelling (see 
p. 318) should be observed. 

For the principal parts of irregular verbs, see p. 297* 

CONJUGATION OF KNOW-ACTIVE VOICE. 

Present. Past. Past Participle. 

Principal parts. — know, knew, known. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Future Tense. 

He knows. He knew. He will know. 

Present Perfect Tense. Past Perfect Tense. Future Perfect Tense. 

He has* known. He had known. He will have known. 

Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. 

He may know. He might know. 

Present Perfect Tense. Past Perfect Tense. 

He may have known. He might have known. 

Subjunctive Mode.— Present Tense. —(If) he know. 

Imperative Mode.— Present Tense. — Know (you). 

* Has = ha(ve)s. 



Forms of the Verb. 215 





Infinitives. 


Present Tense. 


Present Perfect Tense. 


(To) know. 


(To) have known. 




Participles. 


Present. 


Past. Past Perfect. 


Inow-ing, 


known, having known, 



Observation Exercises.— In the synopsis above, how many and 
what tenses do you find in the Indicative Mode 9 — in the Potential f — 
in the Subjunctive f — in the Imperative f What tense-forms have 
Infinitives f How many, and what, Participles do you find ? 

In the Imperative Mode the subject is of what person ? Notice that 
the one commanded is always spoken to. Of what person are the other 
subjects ? What person-forms of the verb do you here find ? Do the 
Infinitives and the Participles have subjects with which to agree in 
person and number ? 

Describe each verb- form above by telling the principal part employed, 
the iiiflection added, the auxiliary or auxiliaries prefixed. 

Repeat the forms above, using I, we, you, and some plural noun for 
subjects.* Notice that the person-form, -s or -es, is found only with a 
subject in the third person, singular. 

May, can, and must are potential auxiliaries in the 
present and the present perfect tense; might, could, would, 

and should, in the past and the past perfect. 

The emphatic form of the present and the past tense 
indicative is made by prefixing do and did to the present. 
Do is prefixed to the imperative also. 

* As a mere sign of the future tense, shall instead of will is used with /and we. 



216 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON CIV. 

FORMS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED. 

The Verb BE. 

Present. Past. Past Participle. . 

Principal Parts. — Be or am, was, been. 

DIRECTION.— Determine the mode, tense, person, and number of 
each of the following verb-forms used with subjects, and tell what 
each of the remaining* forms is called :— 

I am, he is, we are, you are, they are ; I was, he was, we were, 
you were, they were ; he will he ; he Jia-s bee?i ; he had been ; he will 
have been. He may be ; he might be ; he may have been ; he might have 
been. (If) I be, (if) you be, (if) he be, (if) we be, (if) they be ; (if) I were, 
(if) you were, (if) he were. Be (you). (To) be ; (to) have been. Being? 
been, having been. 

Observation Exercises.-— Tell of what each verb-form above con- 
sists. Find two distinctive person-forms peculiar to the verb be. Find 
two plural forms (remember that you always requires a plural verb). 
Which of these is found also in the Subjunctive singular f (See Less. 
LXXI., " Some Uses of Were. 99 ) 

The verb be differs somewhat from other verbs. Tell how, by com- 
paring it with know, in the preceding Lesson. 

Passive and Progressive Forms. 
A transitive verb is conjugated in the passive voice by 
joining its past participle to the different forms of the 
verb be. 

DIRECTION.— "Read, the forms of be found above, adding* to each 
(except the past participle) the past participle known, thus forming* 
the Passive Voice of the verb know; as, "I am known." 

Remark. — The past participle in the passive has the same form as 
in the active. 



Forms of the Verb— Continued. 217 



A verb is conjugated in the progressive form by joining 
its present participle to the different forms of the verb be. 
This form denotes a continuance of the action or being. 

niMECTIOJV.~B.esid the forms of be found above, adding* to each 
(except " been ") the present participle driving, thus making- the Pro- 
gressive Form of drive ; as, "I am driving." 

Remark. — The progressive form has no past participle. 

Person-Forms— Solemn (or Poetic) Style. 

DIRECTION.— Tell the mode, tense, person, and number of the fol- 
lowing- :— 

Thou know-est, thou knew-est, thou wil-t know, thou hast known, 
thou had-st known, thou wil-t have known. Thou may-st know, thou 
might-st know, thou may-st have known, thou might-st have known. 
(If) thou know. Know (thou). He know-eth. 

Thou ar-t, thou was-t. (If) thou be, (if) thou wer-u 

Observation Exercises. — How many and what person-forms do you 
find here or elsewhere in the Imperative Mode f — in the Subjunctive ? 
In what mode and tense do you find the person-form, -s or -es, of the 
common style f * 

To the Teacher. — The conjugation of the English verb is a very simple matter. 
After the pupil has learned the significance of the forms are, were, am, is, -s, -es, -est, 
-st,-t,-eth, and how the principal parts and auxiliaries are combined to form the dif- 
ferent tenses, there is little more to be done. 

We regard as a sad waste of time the months or weeks usually spent in learning 
by rote several hundred verb-forms (real and imaginary). The result of such labor is 
to confuse the pupil and to distract his attention from the few forms he needs to 
know. 

The paradigms given on pp. 301-310 may be useful for reference and for showing 
how many forms our verb has lost. 

We suggest that, for another lesson, the pupils be required to use correctly in 

* Has (= ha(ve)s) in the present perfect tense is the indicative present of have, used, 
as an auxiliary. 
10 



213 Modifications of the Parts of Speeen. 



sentences the different verb-forms found in the two preceding Lessons, and to ex- 
plain their meaning. Let the pupils see that the tense-forms and their meaning do 
not always correspond ; as, " We go to-morrow ;" " We could go on the next train." 
(See pp. 313, 314.) 



LESSON CV. 

CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS. 

Caution. — Be careful to give every verb its proper form 
and meaning. 

DIRECTION.— Choose the right verbs, and grive your reasons :— 

1. I (done or did) it myself. 2. He (threw or thro wed) it into the 
river, for I (seen or saw) him when he (done or did) it. 3. She (sets or 
sits) by the open window enjoying the scene that (lays or lies) before 
her. 

Explanation. — Lay (to place) is transitive, lie (to rest) is intransi- 
tive ; set (to place) is transitive, sit (to rest) is intransitive. Set in 
some of its meanings is intransitive. (See Lesson LX.) 

4. The tide (sits or sets) in. 5. Go and (lay or lie) down. 6. The 
sun (sets or sits) in the west. 7. I remember when the corner stone was 
(laid or lain). 8. (Set or sit) the plates on the table. 9. He (set or sat) 
out for London yesterday. 10. Your dress (sits or sets) well. 11. The 
bird is (sitting or setting) on its eggs. 12. I (laid or lay) there an 
hour. 13. (Set or sit) down and talk a little while. 14. He has (laid 
or lain) there an hour. 15. I am (setting or sitting) by the river. 16. 
He has (did or done) it without my permission. 17. He (fled or flew) 
from justice. 18. Some valuable land was (overflowed or -flown). 19. 
She (came or come) in after you left. 20. They sang a new tune 
which they had not (sang or sung) before. 21. The water I (drunk or 
drank) there was better than any that I had (drunk or drank) before. 
22. The leaves had (fell or fallen). 23. I had (ridden or rode) a short 
distance when the storm (begun or began) to gather, 24. I found the 



Construction of Mode and Tense Forms. 219 



water (frozen or froze). 25. He (raised up, raised himself up, or rose). 
26. He (ran or run) till he became so weary that he was forced to (lay 
or lie) down. 27. I (knowed or knew) that it was so, for I (saw or seen) 
him when he (did or done) it. 28. I had (began or begun) to think 
that you had (forsook or forsaken) us. 29. I am afraid that I cannot 
(learn or teach) him to do it. 30. I (think or guess) that I will stop. 
31. Tell me where you live, and I will (come or go) to your house 
to-morrow. 32. I (expect or believe) that he has gone to Boston. 33. 
There (aint or is n't) any use of trying. 34. I (have got or have) no 
mother. 35. (May or can) I speak to you ? 36. He (ought or had 
ought) to see him. 

Explanation. — As ought is never a participle, it cannot be used after 
had to form a compound tense. 

Caution.— A conditional or a concessive clause requires 
a verb in the indicative mode when the action or being is 
assumed as a fact, or when the uncertainty lies merely in 
the speaker's knowledge of the fact. But when the action 
or being is merely thought of as a future contingency, the 
subjunctive present is preferred. The subjunctive past of 
the verb be is used chiefly to express a wish, or a mere sup- 
position contrary to the fact. 

Examples. — 1. If (= since) it rains, why do you go ? 

2. If it rains (now), I cannot go out. 

3. If it rain, the work will be delayed. 

4. If my friend were here, he would enjoy this. 

Explanation. — In (1) the raining is assumed as a fact. In (2) there 
is a mere uncertainty of knowledge. It either rains or it does not rain 
— the speaker is uncertain which is the fact. In (3) no existing fact is 
referred to ; the raining is merely thought of as a future contingency. 
In (4) a mere supposition, contrary to the fact, is made. My friend's 
not being here is clearly implied. 



JJ20 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Remarks. — When there is doubt as to whether the indicative or the 
subjunctive form is required, use the indicative. 

The present subjunctive forms may be treated as infinitives used to 
complete omitted auxiliaries ; as, "If it (should) rain, the work will be 
delayed " ; " Till one greater man (shall) restore us," etc. This will often 
serve as a guide in distinguishing the indicative from the subjunctive. 

If, though, lest, unless, etc. are usually spoken of as signs of the sub- 
junctive mode, but they are now more frequently followed by indica- 
tive than by subjunctive forms. 

DIRECTION.— Justify the mode of the italicized verbs in the fol- 
lowing" sentences :— 

I. If this were so, the difficulty would vanish. 2. If he was there, 
I did not see him. 3. If to-morrow be fine, I will walk with you. 4. 
Though this seems improbable, it is true. 5. If my friend is in town, 
he will call this evening. 6. If he ever comes, we shall know it. 

Explanation. — In (6) and (7) the coming is referred to as a fact to 
be decided in future time. 

7. If he comes by noon, let me know. 8. The ship leaps, as it were, 
from billow to billow. 9. Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob. 
10. If a pendulum is drawn to one side, it will swing to the other. 

Explanation. — Be is often employed in making scientific statements 
like the preceding, and may therefore be allowed ; but there is nothing 
in the nature of the case to justify such usage. If a pendulum is drawn 
= Whenever a pendulum is drawn. 

II. I wish that I were a musician. 12. Were I disposed, I could not 
gratify you. 13. This sword shall end thee unless thou yield. 14. Gov- 
ern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise thee. 15. I know not whether 
it is so or not. 

DIItJECTION.—SuvP^y in each of the folic wing sentences a verb in 
the indicative or the subjunctive mode, and give a reason for your 
choice :— 

16. I wish it in my power to help you. 17. I tremble lest he 



Construction of Mode and Tense Forms— Continued. 221 



. 18. If he guilty, the evidence does not show it. 19. He 

deserves our pity, unless his tale a false one. 20. Though he 

there, I did not see him. 21. If he but discreet, he will succeed. 

22. If I he, I would do differently. 23. If ye men, fight. 



LESSON CVI. 

CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS-CON- 
TINUED. 

Caution.— Be careful to employ the tense forms of the 
different modes in accordance with their meaning, and in 
such a way as to preserve the proper order of time. 

DIRECTION.— Correct the following" errors, and give your rea- 
sons :— 

1. That custom has been formerly quite popular. 2. Neither will 
they be persuaded though one rose from the dead. 3. He that was 
dead sat up and began to speak. 4. A man bought a horse for one 
hundred dollars ; and, after keeping it three months, at an expense of 
ten dollars a month, he sells it for two hundred dollars : what per 
cent, does he gain ? 5. I should say that it was an hours ride. 6. If 
I had have seen him, I should have known him. 7. I wish I was in 
Dixie. 8. We should be obliged if you will favor us with a scng. 
9. I intended to have called. 

Explanation. — This is incorrect ; it should be, I intended to call 
One does not intend to do what is already completed. 

Remark. — Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, hoping, intend- 
ing, permitting, etc. are followed by verbs denoting present or future 
time. 

The present infinitive expresses an action as present or future, and 
the present perfect expresses it as completed, at the time indicated by 



229 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



the principal verb. I am glad to have met you is correct, because the 
meeting took place before the time of being glad. 

I ought to have gone is exceptional. Ought has no past tense form, 
and so the present perfect infinitive is used to make the expression refei 
to past time. 

10. We hoped to have seen you before. 11. I should not have let 
you eaten it. 12. I should have liked to have seen it. 13. He would 
not have dared done that. 14. You ought to have helped me to have 
done it.' 15. We expected that he would have arrived last night. 
16. The experiment proved that air had weight. 

Remark.— What is true or false at all times is generally expressed in 
the present tense, whatever tense precedes. 

There seems to be danger of applying this rule too rigidly. When a 
speaker does not wish to vouch for the truth of the general proposition, 
he may use the past tense, giving it the appearance of an indirect 
quotation ; as, " He said that iron was the most valuable of metals." 
The tense of the dependent verb is sometimes attracted into that of 
the principal verb; as, "I knew where the place was" 

17. I had never known before how short life really was. 18. We then 
fell into a discussion whether there is any beauty independent of utility. 
The General maintained that there was not ; Dr. Johnson maintained 
that there was. 19. I have already told yon that I was a gentleman. 
20. Our fathers held that all men were created equal. 

Caution. — Use will and would whenever the subject 
names the one whose will controls the action, and shall and 
should whenever the one named by the subject is under the 
control of external influence. 

Remark. — The original meaning of shall (to owe. to be obliged) and 
will (to determine) gives us the real key to their proper use. 

The only case in which some trace of the original meaning of these 



Construction of Mode and Tense Forms -Continued. 223 



auxiliaries cannot be found is, when the subject of will names some* 
thing incapable of volition ; as, " The wind will blow." Even this may 
be a kind of personification. 

Examples. — I shall go, You will go, He will go. These are the proper 
forms to express mere futurity, but even here we can trace the original 
meaning of shall and will. In the first person the speaker avoids ego- 
tism by referring to the act as an obligation or duty rather than as 
something under the control of his own will. In the second and third 
persons it is more courteous to refer to the will of others than to their 
duty. 

I will go. Here the action is under the control of the speaker's will. 
He either promises or determines to go. 

You shall go, He shall go. Here the speaker either promises the 
going or determines to compel these persons to go ; in either case the 
actor is under some external influence. 

Shall I go 9 Here the speaker puts himself under the control of 
some external influence — the will of another. 

Will I go 9 — i. e., Is it my will to go ? — is not used except to 
repeat another's question. It would be absurd for one to ask what his 
own will is. 

Shall you go 9 Arts. I shall. Will you go 9 Ans. I will. Shall 
he go 9 Ans. He shall. Will he go 9 Ans. He will. The same 
auxiliary is used in the question that is used in the answer. 

No difficulty shall hinder me. The difficulty that might do the 
hindering is not to be left to itself, but is to be kept under the control 
of the speaker. 

He says that he shall go, He says that he will go. Change the indirect 
quotations introduced by that to direct quotations, and the application 
of the Caution will be apparent. 

You will see that my horse is at the door by nine o'clock. This is 
only an apparent exception to the rule. A superior may courteously 
avoid the appearance of compulsion, and refer to his subordinate's 
willingness to obey. 



2')± Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



They knew that I should be there, and that he would be there. The 
same principles apply to should and would that apply to shall and will. 
In this example the events are future as to past time ; making them 
future as to present time, we have, They know that I shall be there, 
and that he will be there. 

My friend said that he should not set out to-morrow. Change the 
indirect to a direct quotation, and the force of should will be seen. 

Din ECTIO N.— Assign a reason for the use of shall or will in each 
of the following: sentences :— 

I. Hear me, for I will speak. 2. If you will call, I shall be happy 
to accompany you. 3. Shall you be at liberty to-day ? 4. I shall 
never see him again. 5. I will never see him again. 6. I said that he 
should be rewarded. 7. Thou shalt surely die. 8. Truth, crushed to 
earth, shall rise again. 9. Though I should die, yet will I not deny 
thee. 10. Though I should receive a thousand shekels of silver in 
mine hand, yet would I not put forth my hand against the king's son. 

DIRECTION— "Fill each of the following; blanks with shall, will, 
should, or would, and give the reasons for your choice:— 

II. He knew who betray him. 12. I be fatigued if I had 

walked so far. 13. You did better than I have done. 14. If he 

come by noon, you be ready ? 15. They do me wrong, and I 

not endure it. 16. I — — be greatly obliged if you do me the 

favor. 17. If I say so, I be guilty of falsehood. 18. You 

be disappointed if you see it. 19. he be allowed to go on ? 

20. you be unhappy if I do not come ? 

DIRECTION.— Correct the following- errors, and give your rea- 
sons :— 

21. Where will I leave you ? 22. Will I be in time ? 23. It was 
requested that no person would leave his seat. 24. They requested 
that the appointment would be given to a man who should be known 
to his party. 25. When will we get through this tedious controversy ? 
26. I think we will have rain. 



Construction of Number and Person Forms. 225 



LESSON CVI I , 

CONSTRUCTION OF NUMBER AND PERSON FORMS. 

Agreement.— Verbs— Pronouns. 

Caution. — A verb must agree with its subject in number 
and person. 

Remark. — This rule applies to but few forms. Are and were are 

the only plural forms retained by the English verb. In the common 
style, most verbs have one person form, -s or -es, found in the indic- 
ative present (has, in the present perfect tense, is a contraction of the 
indicative present — ha(ve)s). The verb be has am (first person) and is 
(third person). 

In the solemn style, the second person singular takes the ending est, 
st, or t, and, in the indicative present, the third person singular adds 
eth. 

Caution.— A collective noun requires a verb in the plural 
when the individuals in the collection are thought of ; but, 
when the collection as a whole is thought of, the verb should 
be singular. 

Examples. — 1. The multitude were of one mind. 2. The multitude 
was too large to number. 3. A number were inclined to turn back. 
4. The number present was not ascertained. 

Caution.— When a verb has two or more subjects con- 
nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural. 

Exceptions.— 1. When the connected subjects are different names 
of the same thing, or when they name several things taken as one 
whole, the verb must be singular ; as, " My old friend and schoolmate 
is in town ; " " Bread and milk is excellent food." 
10* 



220 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



2. When singular subjects are preceded by each, every, or no, they 
are taken separately and require a singular verb ; as, "Every man, 
woman, and child was .-lost.'' 

3. When the subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb agrees 
with the first and is understood with the second ; as, " Time, and 
patience also, is needed." (The same is true of subjects connected by 
as well as ; as, " Time, as well as patience, is needed.") 

4. When one of the subjects is affirmative and the other negative, 
the verb agrees with the affirmative ; as, ''Books, and not pleasure, 
occupy his time." 

5. When several subjects follow the verb, each subject may be 
emphasized by making the verb agree with that which stands nearest ; 
as, " Thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory." 

Caution. — When a verb has two or more singular subjects 
connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
singular ; as, " Neither poverty nor wealth was desired." 

Remark. — When the subjects are of different numbers or persons 
the verb agrees with the nearest ; as, " Neither he nor they were satis- 
fied." 

When a singular and a plural subject are used, the plural subject is 
generally placed next to the verb. 

In using pronouns of different persons, it is generally more polite for 
the speaker to mention first the one addressed, and himself last, except 
when he confesses a fault, or when, by using the pronoun we, he asso- 
ciates others with him. 

When the subjects require different forms of the verb, it is generally 
better to express the verb with each subject or to recast the sentence. 

The three special Cautions given above for the agreement 
of the verb apply also to the agreement of the pronoun, 
(See Less. XC.) 



Construction of Number and Person Forms. 227 



DIRECTION.— Justify the use of the following- italicized verbs and 
pronouns :— 

1. Boohs is a noun. 2. The good are great. 3. The committee 
were unable to agree, and they asked to be discharged. 4. The House 
has decided not to allow its members the privilege. 5. Three times 
four is twelve.* 6. Five dollars is not too much. 7. Twice as much 
is too much. 8. Two hours is a long time to wait. 9. To relieve the 
wretched was his pride. 10. To profess and to possess are two dif- 
ferent things. 11. Talking and eloquence are not the same. 12. The 
tongs are not in their place. 13. Every one is accountable for his own 
acts. 14. Every word and every act has its influence. 15. Not a 
loud voice, but strong proofs bring conviction. 16. This orator and 
statesman has gone to his rest. 17. ^Young's " Night Thoughts " is his 
most celebrated poetical work. 18. Flesh and blood hath not revealed 
it. 19. The hue and cry of the country pursues him. 20. The second 
and the third Epistle of John contain each a single chapter. 21. Man 
is masculine, because it denotes a male. 22. Therein consists the force 
and use and nature of language. 23. Neither wealth nor wisdom is the 
chief thing. 24. Either you or I am right. 25. Neither you nor he is 
to blame. 26. John, and his sister also, is going. 27. The lowest 
mechanic, as well as the richest citizen, is here protected in his right. 
28. There are one or two reasons. \ 29. Nine o'clock and forty-five 
minutes is fifteen minutes of ten. 30. Mexican figures, or picture- 
writing, represent things, not words. J 



* " Three times four is twelve," and " Three times four are twelve " are both used, 
and both may be defended. The question is (see Caution for collective nouns), Is the 
number four thought of as a whole, or are the individual units composing it thought 
of? The expression = "Four taken three times is twelve." Times is a noon used 
adverbially without a preposition (see Lesson CXI.). 

tWhen two adjectives differing in number are connected without a repetition of 
the noun, the tendency is to make the verb agree with the noun expressed. 

X The verb here agrees with figures, as picture-writing is logically explanatory of 
fiaures. 



228 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



DIRECTION,— Correct the following" errors, and give your rea» 
«ons :— 

1. Victuals are always plural. 2. Plutarch's "Parallel Lives'' are 
his great work. 3. What sounds have each of the vowels ? 4. " No, no," 
says I. 5. " We agree," says they. 6. Where was you ? 7. Every one 
*9f these are good in their place. 8. Neither of them have recited their 
lesson. 9. There comes the boys. 10. Each of these expressions de- 
note action. 11. One of you are mistaken. 12. There is several 
reasons for this. 13. The assembly was divided in its opinion. 14. 
The public is invited to attend. 15. The committee were full when 
this point was decided. 16. The nation are prosperous. 17. Money, 
as well as men, were needed. 18. Now, boys, I want every one of you 
to decide for themselves. 19. Neither the intellect nor the heart are 
capable of being driven. 20. She fell to laughing like one out of their 
right mind. 21. Five years' interest are due. 22. Three quarters of 
the men was discharged. 23. Nine tenths of every man's happiness 
depend upon this. 24. No time, no money, no labor, were spared. 
25. One or the other have erred in their statement. 26. Why are dust 
and ashes proud ? 27. Either the master or his servants is to blame. 
28. Neither the servants nor their master are to blame. 29. Our welfare 
and security consists in unity. 30. The mind, and not the body, sin. 
31. He don't like it. 

To the Teacher.— These exercises may profitably be continued by requiring the 
pupils to compose sentences illustrating those constructions in which mistakes are 
liable to be made. 

Remark. — The following exceptional forms are worthy of note : — 
Need and dare, when followed by an infinitive, are often used instead 
of needs and dares ; as, " He need not do it" ; " He dare not do it." 

The pronoun and the verb of an adjective clause relating to the 
indefinite subject it take, by attraction, the person and number of the 
complement when this complement immediately precedes the adjective 
clause ; as, "It is I that am in the wrong" ; "It is thou that Uftest 
me up " ; " It is the dews and showers that make the grass grow." 



The Verb Reviewed. 229 



LESSON CVIII 

THE VERB REVIEWED. 



What does transitive mean ? Show that the object of a transitive 
verb may be the object complement or the subject. Show that a verb 
may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another. Define 
a verb. Define the two classes with respect to meaning ; — with respect 
to form. Illustrate redundant and defective verbs. 

What verbs have voice t Of what advantage is this modification ? 
Define Voice and the two voices. Into what may the passive form be 
resolved ? Illustrate. What may be mistaken for a passive form ? 
Illustrate. What occurs in the sentence when a verb is changed from 
the active to the passive ? Illustrate regular and irregular construc- 
tions. 

Illustrate four different ways of asserting an action. What does 
mode mean ? Define Mode and the four modes. Define the Infinitive. 
Define the Participle and the three kinds of participles. Why are par- 
ticiples and infinitives not here classed with the modes ? 

Give forms of the verb representing the three natural divisions of 
time ; — forms representing action completed in each of these divisions. 
Define Tense and the six tenses. 

Define Person and Number of a verb. Give the different person- 
forms of the verb. Give the two number-forms of be. Where, in the 
conjugation, are these person-forms and number-forms found ? Show 
how the different tenses are formed. How is a verb conjugated in the 
passive form ? — in the progressive form ? 

Illustrate the Caution in regard to giving every verb its proper form 
and meaning. Illustrate the Caution in regard to the uses of the in- 
dicative and subjunctive forms. Illustrate the Caution in regard to 
the use of tense-forms. Explain the uses of shall and will. Illustrate 
the principles that control the agreement of the verb with its subject 
and the pronoun with its antecedent. 



230 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON CIX. 

PARSING-VERBS. 



DIRECTION.— Select and parse in full all the verbs found in the 
eighteen sentences given for exercises in construction, Less. LXVII. 

Model for Written Parsing — Verbs. — The Yankee, selling his farm, 
wanders away to seek new lands. 



CLASSIFICATION. 




MODIFICATIONS. 




SYNTAX. 


Verbs. 


Kind. 


Voice. 


Mode. 


Tense. 


Per. 


Num. 




* selling 


Pr. Par., Ir.,Tr. 


Ac. 














Mod. of Yankee. 


wanders 


Reg., Int. 





Ind. 


Pres. 


3d. 


Sing. 


Pred. of " 


* seek 


Inf., Ir., Tr. 


Ac. 













Principal word in phrase 
Mod. of wanders. 



To the Teacher. — Exercises for the parsing of verbs may be selected from Les- 
sons 55, 56, 63, 64, 66, 68, 70. For advanced work, see 280-285. 

Oral Parsing. — Selling is a verb, present participle, irregular, transi- 
tive, active, modifier of Yankee. 

Wanders is a verb, regular, intransitive, indicative, present, third, 
singular, predicate of Yankee. 

Seek is a verb, infinitive, irregular, transitive, active, present, prin- 
cipal word in a phrase modifying ivanders. 



* Participles and infinitives have no subject, and, consequently, no person oi 
number. (Remember that we distinguish between subject and assumed subject.) 



Parsing. 



231 



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232 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Uses. 



Classes. 



ffl 
DC 
W 
> 



GENERAL REVIEW. 
Scheme for the Verb. 

(The numbers refer to Lessons.) 

To assert action, being, or state. — Predicate (8, 19). 

To assume action, being, or state, j j^nnit^e? (56)!' 



Form. 



Meaning. 



Modifications. 



Voice. 



Mode. 



Tense. 



Number. 



Person. 



( Regular (81). 

-j Irregular (81, 58-60). 

( {Redundant and Defective.) 

j Transitive (81). 
( Intransitive (81). 



j Active (101). 
\ Passive (101). 

{Indicative. 
Potential. 
Subjunctive. .- 
Imperative. J 



(102-106.) 



Present. 
Past. 
Future. 

Present Perfect. 
Past Perfect. 
Future Perfect. 



(102-106). 



( Singular. 
( Plural. 

( First. 
■< Second. 
Third. 



I (102-104, 107). 
1 (102-104, 107). 



Participles.-— Classes. 



( Present. ) 

•I Past. V 

( Past Perfect. ) 



(102-104). 



Infinitives. — 



Tenses. 



I Present. 

1 Present Perfect. 



(102-104, 106). 



General Review. 233 



i 



Questions on the Verb. 



1. Define the verb and its classes. — Less. 81. 

2. Name and define the modifications of the verb. — Less. 101, 102. 

3. Name and define the several voices, modes, and tenses. — Less, 
101, 102. 

4. Define the participle and its classes. — Less. 102. 

5. Define the infinitive. — Less. 102. 

6. Give a synopsis of a regular and of an irregular verb in the dif- 
ferent forms. — Less. 103, 104. 

7. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the 
mode and tense forms, and of the person and number forms. — Less. 
107-109. 

GENERAL REVIEW. 
Schemes for the Conj., Prep., and Int. 

( The numbers refer to Lessons.) 

THE CONJUNCTION. Classes. { ^SSSSSi \ <»>• 
THE PREPOSITION. No Classes (38, 83). 
THE INTERJECTION. No Classes (46). 

Questions on the Conj., Prep., and Int. 

1. Define the conjunction and its classes. — Less. 82. 

2. Give and illustrate the principles that guide in the use of con- 
junctions. — Less. 82, 

3. Define the preposition. — Less. 38. 

4. Give and illustrate the principles that guide in the use of preposi- 
tions. — Less. 83. 

5. Define the interjection, and explain its office in the sentence.— 
Less. 46. 

6. What parts of speech have no modifications f 



234: Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute 
complement of a predicate verb, or used independently, is 
in the nominative case. 

II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infin- 
itive is in the same case as the word to which it relates. 
(See foot-note, p. 186.) 

III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in 
the possessive case. 

IV. A noun or pronoun used as object complement or as 
objective complement or as the principal word in a preposi- 
tional phrase* is in the objective case. 

V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in 
the same case as the word explained. 

For Cautions, Principles, and Examples respecting the cases of 
nouns and, pronouns, see Less. 91,92, 93. For Cautions and Exam- 
ples to guide in the use of the different pronouns, see Less. 79. 

VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, 
number, and gender. 

With two or more antecedents connected by and, the pronoun is 
plural. 

* With two or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor, the 
pronoun is singular. 

For Cautions, Principles, and Examples, see Less. 89, 90, 107. 

VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and num- 
ber. 

With two or more subjects connected by and, the verb is plural. 

* An "indirect object" or a noun of measure, etc., used adverbially, is treated as 
the principal word in a prepositional phrase (see Less. CXI.). 



Summary of the Rules of Syntax. 235 



With two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor, the verb 
is singular. 
For Cautions, Examples, and Exceptions, see Less. 107. 

VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is 
used like an adjective or a noun. 

For Uses of the participle, see Less. 114. 

IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by to, and with 
it forms a phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an ad- 
verb. 

For Uses of the infinitive, see Less. 115. 

X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. 

For Cautions and Examples respecting the use of adjectives and of 
comparative and superlative forms, see Less. 80, 99. 

XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. 

For Cautions and Examples, see Less. 81,99. 

XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and 
shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the 
word modified. 

For Cautions, see Eess. 83. 

XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses. 

For Cautions and Examples, see Less. 82. 

XIV. Interjections are used independently. 



Supplementary and Review. 



LESSON CX. 

THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT. 

Introductory. — ' 2 He made the wall white." Here made does not 
fully express the action performed upon the wall. We do not mean to 
say, "Remade the white watt," but " He made-white (whitened) the 
wall." White helps made to express the action, and at the same time it 
denotes the quality attributed to the wall as the result of the action. 

" They made Victoria queen." Here made does not fully express the 
action performed upon Victoria. They did not make Victoria, but 
made-queen (crowned) Victoria. Queen helps made to express the 
action, and at the same time denotes the office to which the action 
raised Victoria. 

A word that, like the adjective white or the noun queen, helps to 
complete the predicate and at the same time belongs to the object com- 
plement, differs from an attribute complement by belonging not to the 
subject but to the object complement, and so is called an Objective 
Complement. 

As the objective complement denotes what the receiver of the act is 
"made to be, in fact or in thought, it is sometimes called the factitive 
complement or the factitive object (Lat. facere, to make). 

Some of the other verbs that may be thus completed are call, think, 
choose, and name. 



DEFINITION.— The Objective Complement completes the 
predicate and belongs to the object. 



238 Supplementary and Review. 



Analysis. 

I. They made Victoria queen. 

They made , queen , Victoria Explanation.— The line that sepa- 
rates made from queen slants to- 
ward the object complement to show that queen belongs to the object. 

Oral Analysis. — Queen is an objective complement completing made 
and belonging to Victoria; made Victoria queen is the complete pred- 
icate. 

2. Some one has called the eye the window of the soul. 

3. Destiny had made Mr. Churchill a schoolmaster. 

4. After a break of sixty years in the ducal line of the English 
nobility, James I. created the worthless Yilliers Duke of Bucking- 
ham. 

5. We should consider time as a sacred trust. 

Explanation. — As may be used simply to introduce an objective 
complement. (See as in diagram of (14), p. 242.) 

6. Ophelia and Polonius thought Hamlet really insane. 

7. The President and the Senate appoint certain men ministers to 
foreign courts. 

8. How often has he stricken you dumb with his irony ! 

9. Custom renders the feelings blunt and callous. 
10. Socrates styled beauty a short-lived tyranny. 

II. Madame de Stael calls beautiful architecture frozen music. 

12. They named the state New York from the Duke of York. 

13. Henry the Great consecrated the Edict of Nantes as the very ark 
of the constitution. 



LESSON CXI. 

NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS. 

Introductory. — " He gave me a &oo&. " Here we have what many 
grammarians call a double object. Booh, naming the thing acted upon. 



Nouns as Adverb Modifiers. 239 



they call the direct object ; and me, representing the person toward 
whom the act is directed, the indirect, or dative, object. 

You see that me and book do not, like Comwallis and army, in 
"Washington captured Comwallis and his army" form a compound 
object complement ; they cannot be connected by a conjunction, for 
they do not stand in the same relation to the verb gave. The meaning 
is not, " He gave me and the book." 

We prefer to treat these " indirect objects " — which generally name 
the person to or for whom something is done — as phiase modifiers 
without the preposition. If we change the order of the words, the prep- 
osition must be supplied ; as, " He gave a book to me." " He bought 
me a book " ; " He bought a book for me." " He asked me a question " ; 
" He asked a question of me." 

Teach, tell, send, lend, are other verbs that take "double objects." 

Besides these "indirect objects," nouns denoting measure, quan- 
tity, weight, time, value, distance, or direction are often used adverb- 
ially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers without the preposition. 
"We walked four miles an hour." " It weighs one pound. " "It is 
worth a dollar a yard." "I went home that ivay." "The wall is 
ten feet, six inches high." 

The idiom of the language does not often admit a preposition before 
nouns denoting measure, direction, etc. You need not supply one. 



Analysis. 

DIRECTION.— Distinguish, carefully between nouns used as indi- 
rect objects, and nouns of measm e, etc. :— 

1. They oifered Csesar the crown three times. 

They r offered , crown Explanation. — Cmsar (the "indirect 

object ") and times (denoting measure) 
stand in the diagram on lines represent- 
ing the principal words of prepositional 
phrases. 




24:0 Supplementary and Review. 



Oral Analysis. — Ccvsar and times, without prepositions, perform the 
office of adverb phrases modifying the predicate offered. 

2. We pay the President of the United States $50,000 a year. 

3. He sent his daughter home that way. 

4. I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, and ten cents a pound 
for his sugar. 

5. Shakespeare was fifty-two years old the very day of his death. 

6. Serpents cast their skin once a year. 

7. The famous Charter Oak of Hartford, Conn., fell Aug. 21, 1850. 

8. Good land should yield its owner seventy-five bushels of corn an 
acre. 

9. On the fatal field of Zutphen, Sept. 22, 1586, his attendants 
brought the wounded Sir Philip Sidney a cup of cold water. 

10. He magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water. 

11. The frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes by means 
of gills. 

12. Queen Esther asked King Ahasuerus a favor. 

13. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy. 

14. The pure attar of roses is worth twenty or thirty dollars an 
ounce. 

15. Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night. 



LESSON CXII. 

ANALYSIS-MISCELLANEOUS— REVIEW. 

1. Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom. 
3. The Suspension Bridge is stretched across the Niagara river just 
below the Falls. 



atmosphere 




Explanation. — An adverb may 
modify a phrase or a preposition. 

Only here modifies a whole phrase, 
and just modifies a preposition. 



Analysis— Miscellaneous— Revie w# 241 

3. The range of thirty pyramids, even in the tii\ e f Abraham, 
looked down on the plain of Memphis. 

4. Between the mind of man and the outer world are interposed the 
nerves of the human body. 

5. By perfection is meant the full and harmonious development of 
all the faculties. 

6. By the streets of By-and-by, one arrives at the house of Neve.T\ j. 

7. The study of natural science goes hand in hand * with the culture 
of the imagination. 

8. A Christian spirit should 
be shown to Jew or Greek, 
male or female, friend or foe. 

9. Hunger rings the bell, and 
orders up coals in the shape of 
bread and butter, beef and ba- 
con, pies and puddings. 

10. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunk, and thatch 
roofs with the leaves, of the cocoanut palm. 

11. Oh, a dainty plant is the ivy green ! 

Explanation. — The subject names that of which the speaker says 
something. The terms in which he says it, — the predicate, — he, of 
course, assumes that the hearer already understands; Settle, then, 
which — plant or ivy — Dickens supposes the reader to know least about, 
and which, therefore, Dickens is telling him about ; and you settle 
which word— £>Zem£ or ivy — is the subject. (Is it not the writer's poeti- 
cal conception of "the green ivy" that the reader is supposed not to 
possess ?) 

12. The highest outcome of culture is simplicity. 

13. I am here. I am present. 

Explanation. — The office of an adverb sometimes fades into that of 

* Hand in hand may be treated as one adverb. So may one by one, by and by, in 
vain, etc. 

11 



spirit , should ~be shown 






\ \% \ 

Vs. \- 


i 

i 




Jew 


^k 


Greek 


V \ / 




male 




-C*" 


female 






friend 




~0" 


foe 



242 supple mentary and Review. 



went 



Re 



an adjective attrrjute. Here, like an adjective, seems to complete am s 
and, like an adv'erb, to modify it. From their form and usual function, 
here should, i n this sentence, be called an adverb, and present an 
adjective. 

14. He-, went out as mate and came back captain. 

fo. , <f* Explanation. — Mate, like captain, is 

wale an attribute complement. Some would 

say that the conjunction as connects 

mate to lie ; but we think this connec- 

V tion is made through the verb went, and 

that as is simply introductory. This is indicated in the diagram. 

15. Under the Roman law, every son was regarded as a slave. 

16. This book is presented to you as a token of esteem and gratitude. 

17. Sir Philip Sidney lived and died the darling of the Court, and the 
gentleman and idol of the time. 



captain 



LESSON CXIII. 

ANALYSIS-MISCELLANEOUS-REVIEW. 

1. Bees communicate to each other the death of the queen, by a rapid 
interlacing of the antenna?. 

Explanation. — Each other may be treated as one term, or each may 
be made explanatory of bees. 

2. The lamp of a man's life has three wicks — brain, blood, and 
breath. 

Explanation. — Several words may together be explanatory of one. 

3. The turtle's back-bone and breast-bone — its shell and coat of 
armor — are on the outside of its body. 

'bac'k-'bone shell 



Analysis— Miscellaneous— Review. 243 



4. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, three powerful na- 
tions, namely, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, united for the dismember- 
ment of Poland. 

Explanation. — As, namely, to wit, viz., i. e., e. g., and that is may 
introduce explanatory modifiers, but they do not seem to connect them 
to the words modified. In the diagram they stand like as in the preced- 
ing Lesson. 

5. Two mighty vortices, Pericles and Alexander the Great, drew 
into strong eddies about themselves all the glory and the pomp of 
Greek literature, Greek eloquence, Greek wisdom, Greek art. 

6. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense lie in three words 
— health, peace, and competence. 

7. They scaled Mount Blanc — a daring feat. 

They . scaled , Mount Blanc f feat \ 



Explanation. — Feat is explanatory of the sentence They scaled 
Mount Blanc, and in the diagram it stands, enclosed in curves, on a 
short line placed after the sentence line. 

8. There are no accidents in the providence of God. 

9. The smith,* a mighty man is he. 

10. But the enemies of tyranny — their path leads to the scaffold. 

11. She (oh, the artfulness of the woman !) managed the matter 
extremely well. 

retreat l)eqan Explanation. — Expressions enclosed within 

marks of parenthesis are independent. 

12. A day later (Oct. 19, 1812) began the 
day fatal retreat of the Grand Army, from Mos- 
V~ cow. (See Lesson CXI.) 

* Expressions independent by pleonasm are set off by the comma when the break 
after them is slight, as in (9); but, if it is abrupt, as in (10), the dash is required. 



■+■ 



244: Supplementary and Review. 



13. Six days slialt thou labor and do all thy work. 

14. How beautiful was the snow, falling all day long, all night long, 
on the roofs of the living, on the graves of the dead ! 

15. Who, in the darkest days of our Revolution, carried your flag 
into the very chops of the British Channel, bearded the lion in his den, 
and woke the echoes of old Albion's hills by the thunders of his cannon 
and the shouts of his triumph V 



LESSON CXIV. 

PARTICIPLES REVIEWED AND CONTINUED. 
Analysis. 
The participle may be used as an adjective modifier; 
as an attribute complement; as an objective comple- 
ment ; as the principal word in a prepositional phrase ; 
as the principal word in a phrase used as a subject or an 
object complement; as independent, or with a noun to 
form an absolute phrase. The participle may become a 
mere noun or a mere adjective. 

1. The morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o'er the dew of yon high 
eastern hill. 

2. The natives came crowding around. 

Explanation. — Crowding here completes the predicate came, and be- 
longs to the subject natives. The natives are represented as performing 
the act of coming and the accompanying act of crowding. The assertive 
force of the predicate came seems to extend over both verbs. 

3. The philosopher sat buried in thought. 

4. He kept me waiting. 

Explanation. — Waiting completes Jcept and relates to the object 
complement me. Kept-waiting expresses the complete action per- 



Participles Reviewed and. Continued. 245 



formed upon me. " He kept-waiting me " == " He detained me." The 
relation of waiting to me may be seen by changing the form of the 
verb ; as, " I was kept waiting." (See Lesson CX.) 



5. I found my book growing dull. 

Explanation. — Notice that the little 

dun mark before the phrase points toward the 

h , object complement. The adjective dull 

completes growing and belongs to book, 

the assumed subject of growing. 



% 



I . found 



T 



6. I felt my heart beating faster. 

7. You may imagine me sitting there. 

8. Saul, seeking his father's asses, found himself suddenly turned 
into a king. 

9. Food, keeping the body in health by making it warm and repair- 
ing its waste, is a necessity. 

Explanation. — Participles may take objective complements. 
10. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position. 

jti„g , utter Oral Analysis. — The phrase your writ- 

ing that letter so neatly is the subject ; 
the principal word of it is writing, which 
is completed by letter; writing, as a 
noun, is modified by your, and, as a 




¥ 



verb, by the adverb phrase so neatly. 

11. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others. 

12. My going there will depend upon my father's giving his consent. 

13. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our affairs. 

14. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens's 
" constitutionals." 

15. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. 

Explanation. — The absolute phrase is treated as grammatically 



246 Supplementary and Review. 



independent, although it may generally be expanded into an adverb 
clause. 

16. Why does the very murderer, his victim sleeping before him, and 
his glaring eye taking the measure of the blow, strike wide of the mor- 
tal part ? 

17. The blending of the seven prismatic colors produces white light. 

18. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun. 

Explanation. — Like is here an adjective (= similar). After like the 
preposition to is usually omitted. 

19. Such was the exciting campaign, celebrated in many * a long- 
forgotten song. 

Explanation. — Many modifies song after it has been limited by a 
and long -for gotten. 



LESSON CXV. 

INFINITIVES REVIEWED AND CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 

The infinitive phrase may be used as an adjective 
modifier ; as an adverb modifier; as an explanatory 
modifier; as subject; as object, attribute, or objective 
complement; after a preposition as the principal term 
of another phrase; with its assumed subject, as the 
principal term of a phrase introduced by for; as an in- 
dependent element. 



* Manig man in Anglo-Saxon was used like German mancher matin, Latin multus 
vir, and the like, until the thirteenth century ; when the article was inserted to 
emphasize the distribution before indicated by the singular number.— Prof. F. A. 
March. 



Infinitives Reviewed and. Continued. 24? 



Remark.— Participles and infinitives are also used in making com- 
pound verbs ; as, " have walked," " shall (to) walk ". 

Remark. — The to of the infinitive phrase is omitted after the auxil- 
iaries do, can, may, must, shall, and will. It is also generally or fre- 
quently omitted after the active voice of bid, dare, feel, have, hear, let, 
make, need, see, behold; and sometimes, after help, please, and some 
other verbs. 

1. Many attempts to assassinate William the Silent were defeated. 

2. I will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated another 
time. 

3. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. 

4. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful. 

5. Not to know what happened before we were born is to be always 
<i child. 

6. I love to lose myself in other men's minds. 

7. He made me wait. 

Explanation. — The infinitive wait completes made and relates to 
me. " He made-wait me " = " He detained me." 

See " Introductory," Lesson CX., and compare "He made the stick 
bend — equaling " He made-bend (= bent) the stick "—with " He made 
the stick straight" — equaling "He made-straight (= straightened) the 
stick." 

r Ihe relation of these objective complements to me and stick may 
be more clearly seen by changing the form of the verb, thus: "1 
was made to wait" ; "The stick was made to bend" ; "The stick was 
made straight." 

8. We found the report to be true.* 

Vs 

\ ~be v true 



u: 



We , found , /\ , report 



* Some prefer to treat the report to be true as an object clause, because it is equiva- 
lent to the clause that the report is true. But many expressions logically equivalent 
are entirely different in grammatical construction. 

If, in " I desire him to be promoted, 1 ' him to be promoted is a clause because equiv 



248 Supplementary and Review. 




0. Being persuaded by Poppaea, Nero caused his mother, Agrippina. 
to be assassinated. 

10. Refusing to bare his head to any earthly potentate, Richelieu 
would permit no eminent author to stand bareheaded in his presence. 

11. My friend is about to leave me. 



Explanation. — The preposition about 
introduces the phrase used as attribute 
complement ; the principal part is the in- 
finitive phrase to leave me. 



12. Paul was now about to open his mouth. 

13. No way remains but to go on. 

Explanation. — But is here used as a preposition. 

14. For us to know our faults is profitable. 

Explanation.— For introduces the 

subject phrase ; the principal part of 

laww ' fau ?^ — the entire phrase is us to know our 

v faults; the principal word is us, 

v profitable which is modified by the phrase to 

know our faults. 

15. God never made his work for man to mend. 

Explanation. — The principal term of the phrase for man to mend is 
not man, but man to mend. 

alent to that he should be promoted, why is not his promotion a clause in " I desire 
his promotion'''' f 

"I saw the sun rising'''' ; "I saw the rising of the sun.'''' If we must call the 
sun rising a clause, why not call the rising of the sun a clause ? In both expressions 
sun names the actor and rising denotes the act. 

Besides, when the pupil has learned that he is a subject-form and him an object- 
form, and that participles and infinitives lack the asserting element necessary to a 
true predicate, we prefer not to confuse him by calling him the subject and to be pro 1 
moted the predicate of a clause. 




The Adjective Clause Reviewed and Continued. 249 



16. For a man to be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance. 

17. Every object has several faces, so to speak. 

18. To make a long story short, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette 
were beheaded. 

19. To be, or not to be, — that is the question. 



LESSON CXVI. 

THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE REVIEWED AND CON- 
TINUED. 

1. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blush for his 
habits. 

mountains 2. Islands are the tops of mountains whose base 

X ,. . is in the bed of the ocean. 
\ ° a8e i ls 
\.. \^ Explanation. — The connecting pronoun is here a 

v possessive modifier of base. 

3. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers 
interesting. 

4. Grouchy did not arrive at the time that Napoleon most needed 
him. 

Explanation. — A preposition is wanting with that. (See p. 118, 
foot-note.) 

5. Trillions of waves of ether enter the eye and hit the retina in the 
time you take to breathe. 

Explanation. — The connecting pronoun is omitted. Supply that. 

6. The smith takes his name from his smoothing the metals he 
works on. 

7. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw. 

11 



0=jQ Supple mentary and. Review. 



8. It is to you that I speak. 

Explanation. — Here the preposition, which naturally would stand 
last in the sentence, is found before the complement of the independent 
clause. In analysis restore the preposition to its natural place—" It 
is you that I speak to." That I speak to modifies the subject. 

9. It was from me that he received the information. 

(Me must be changed to 1 when/rom is restored to its natural position.) 

10. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth. 

Explanation. — The adjective clause modifies the omitted antecedent 
of whom. Supply him. 

11. The swan achieved what the goose conceived. 

12. What men he had were true. 

Explanation. — Men is here taken from its natural position before 
what, and placed after it, as if the relative were an adjective. In analy- 
sis restore men to its place — " Men what (= that) he had were true." 

13. I told him to bring whichever was the lightest. 

Explanation. — The infinitive phrase is object complement ; him is 
used adverbially ("indirect object"). 

14. Whatever crushes individuality is despotism. 

15. He raised the maid from where she knelt. 

Explanation. — Supply the place before where. 

16. This reason did the ancient fathers render why the church was 
called "catholic". 

17. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the opera- 
tions of the universe are conducted. 



Tlie Adverb Clause Reviewed and Continued. 251 



LESSON CXVI I. 

THE ADVERB CLAUSE REVIEWED AND CONTINUED. 

Introductory. — See Lesson LXVI. 

" The ground is wet, because it has rained." The adverb clause, 
introduced by because, assigns the Real Cause of the ground's being 
wet. 

"It has rained, for the ground is wet." The adverb clause, intro- 
duced by for, does not assign the cause of the raining, but the cause of 
our believing that it has rained ; it gives the Reason for the assertion 
or the Evidence of what is asserted.* 

"If it rain, the ground will be wet." The adverb clause, intro- 
duced by if, assigns what, if it occur, 'will be the cause of the ground's 
being wet, but, as here expressed, is only a Condition ready to become 
a cause. 

"He takes exercise that he may get well." The adverb clause, intro- 
duced by that, assigns the cause or motive or, better, the Purpose, 
of his exercising. 

" The ground is dry, although it has rained." The adverb clause, 
introduced by although, expresses a Concession. It is conceded that 
a cause for the ground's not being dry exists ; but, in spite of this 
opposing cause, it is asserted that the ground is dry. 

All these dependent clauses of real cause, reason, condition, purpose, 
and concession come, as you see, under the general head of Cause, 
although only the first assigns the cause proper. 

(For connectives of adverb clauses, see 293, 294.) 

* Reason or Evidence should be carefully distinguished from Cause. Cause pro- 
duces an effect, Reason or Evidence produces knowledge of an effect. 

Reason, Evidence, and Proof have been used to name this element, Evidence, 
nowever, is not Proof till conclusive. In some sentences the term Reason will best 
apply ; in others, Evidence. 

Clauses of Reason or Evidence are sometimes treated as independent. 



25 v Supplementary and Review. 



Lord 


, will take i me 


* 


1 V 






^ !•> 


\ i\ forsake \ me 



mother 



T 



The adverb clause may express t ime, place, degree, man* 
ncr, real cause, reason or evidence, condition, purpose) 
concession. 

1. When my father and my mother forsake me, then the Lord will 
take me up. 

Explanation.— By changing then 
into at the time, and when into at 
which, the offices of these two words 
will be clearly seen. For explanation 
of the line representing when, see (1), 
p. 61, and (1), p. 124. 

2. Cato, before* he durst give himself the fatal stroke, spent the 
night in reading " Plato's Immortality." 

3. Blucher arrived on the field of Waterloo just as Wellington was 
meeting the last onslaught of Napoleon. 

Blucher , arrived Explanation.— Just may 

' s-\ be treated as a modifier of 

\A% the dependent clause. A 

Wellington \ was meeting | onslaught closer analysis, however, 

would make it a modifier of 
as. Just as = just at the time at which. Just here modifies at the 
time. At the time is represented in the diagram by the first element 
of the as line. 

4. Where the snow falls, there is freedom. 

5. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense and expression wherever 
he could find it. 

6. Washington was as good as he was great. 

Explanation. — The adverb clause as he was great modifies the first 

* Some prefer, in corn-tractions like this, to treat before, ere, after, till, until, and 
since as prepositions followed by noun clauses. 



The Adverb Clause Reviewed and Continued. 253 



as, which is an adverb modifying good. The first as, modified by the 
adverb clause, answers the question, Good to what extent or degree 1 
The second as modifies great and performs the office of a conjunction, 
and is therefore a conjunctive adverb. Transposing, and expanding 
as ... as into two phrases, we have, " Washington was good in 
the degree in which he was great," (See diagram of (1), above.) 

7. The wiser he grew, the humbler he became. 

Explanation. — The words the , . . the are similar in office to 
as , . . as — " He became humbler in that degree in which he be- 
came wiser." 

8. Gold is heavier than iron. 

Gold | is y heavier Explanation. — Heavier = heavy beyond 

\o the degree, and than — in which. The sen- 

V tence — " Gold is heavy beyond the degree in 

iron | x N \ | x — which iron is heavy." Is and heavy are 

omitted. Frequently words are omitted after than and as. Than 

modifies heavy (understood) and connects the clause expressing degree 

to heavier, and is therefore a conjunctive adverb. 

9. To be right is better than to be president. 

Explanation. — " To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than 
to be president (would be good)." 

10. It was so cold that the mercury froze.* 

Explanation. — The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it 
produced. The adverb so, modified by the adverb clause that the mer- 
cury froze, answers the question, Cold to what degree ? The sentence 

* In this sentence, also in (11), the dependent clause is sometimes termed a clause 
of Result or Consequence. Clauses of Result express different logical relations, and 
cannot always be classed under Degree. 

The following are somewhat peculiar : — 

" I had heard of it before, so that 1 was not surprised." " I never go this way that 
I do not think of it." " Who is he that he should be so honored? " 



254- Supplementary and Review. 



= "It was cold to that degree in which the mercury froze." That (= 
in which) modifies froze and connects the clauses ; it is therefore a 
conjunctive adverb. 

11. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury. 

Explanation. — " It was so cold as to freeze the mercury would indi- 
cate or require " ; or " It was as cold as it would be to freeze the mer- 
cury." As to freeze the mercury may be resolved into the clause that 
the mercury froze. 

12. One's breeding shows itself nowhere more than in his religion. 

13. As the upright man thinks so he speaks. 

(For diagram of as . . . so, see when ... then in (1), above.) 

14. Sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washing, as it combines 
fresh air and vigorous exercise with its other benefits. 

15. Tobacco and the potato are American products, since Raleigh 
found them here. 

16. If the air is quickly compressed, enough heat is evolved to pro- 
duce combustion. 

17. Language was given us that we might say pleasant things to each 
other. 

18. Spiders have eyes all over their heads in order that they may see 
in many directions at one time. 

Explanation. — The phrases in order that, so that -— that (Conj.). 

19. Though many rivers flow into the Mediterranean, they are not 
sufficient to make up the loss caused by evaporation. 



LESSON CX VI II . 

THE NOUN CLAUSE REVIEWED AND CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 
The noun clause may be used as subject, object comple* 



The Noun Clause Reviewed and Continued. 255 



merit, attribute complement, explanatory modifier^ 
principal term of a prepositional phrase. 

1. " Where is Abel, thy brother?" smote the ears of the guilty 
Cain. 

2. When to quit business and enjoy their wealth is a problem never 
solved by some. 

Explanation. — When to quit busi?iess and enjoy their wealth is an 
indirect question. A question, fully stated, requires a subject and a 
predicate. When to quit business — When they are (or ought) to quit 
business. Such constructions may be expanded into clauses, or they 
may be treated as phrases equivalent to clauses. 

3. He does not know which to choose. 

4. The peacock struts about, saying, " What a fine tail I have ! " 

5. No one can tell how or when or where he will die. 

6. A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed 
words. 

7. The question ever asked and never answered is, " Where and 
how am I to exist in the Hereafter ? " 

8. The myth concerning Achilles is, that he was invulnerable in 
every part except the heel. 

9. It is believed that sleep is caused by a diminution in the supply 
of blood to the brain. 

10. Shakespeare's metaphor, " Night's candles are burnt out," is one 
of the finest in literature. 

11. Napoleon turned his Simplon road aside in order that he might 
save a tree mentioned by Caesar. 

Explanation. — Unless in order that is taken as a conjunction con- 
necting an adverb clause of purpose (see (18), Lesson CXVIL), the 
Clause introduced by that is a noun clause explanatory of order. 



256 Supplementary and Review. 




12. Have birds any sense of why they sing ? 

Explanation.— Why they sing 
is an indirect question, here used 
as the principal term of a preposi- 
tional phrase. 

13. There has been some dispute about who wrote "Shakespeare's 
Plays." 

14. We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the Pole. 

Explanation. — Supposing of to be omitted before that, the noun 
clause may be treated as the principal term of a prepositional phrase 
modifying the adjective certain. By supplying of the fact, the noun 
clause will become explanatory. 

15. We are all anxious that the future shall bring us success and 
triumph. 

16. The Sandwich Islander is confident that the strength and valor 
of his slain enemy pass into himself. 



LESSON CXIX. 

COMPLEX AND COMPOUND CLAUSES. 
Analysis. 

The clauses of complex and compound sentences may 
themselves be complex or compound. 

1. Some of the insects which are most admired, which are decorated 
with the most brilliant colors, and which soar on the most ethereal 
wings, have passed the greater portion of their lives in the bowels of 
the earth. 



Complex and Compound Clauses. 



257 



insects 



Explanation. — This diagram illus- 
whwh . are admired trates the analysis of a compound 
adjective clause. Each adjective clause 
is connected to insects by which. And 
connects the co-ordinate clauses. 



\ which , are'.decorated 

o — Lp- 

i ora# 



v which . soar 



H- 



eart h,] is ground 
■I — i" . 



it .{revolvesl 



He , proved , 



2. He proved that the earth is round, and 
that it revolves. 



8. The hour had passed and the opportunity had escaped, while he 
tarried. 

hour , had passed 



Explanation. — This diagram shows that 
the clause while he tarried modifies both 
predicates of the independent clauses. 
While modifies had passed, had escaped, 
and tarried, as illustrated by the short 
lines under the first two verbs and the one 

over tarried. The office of while as connective is shown by the dotted 

lines. 



V \ \ssiL 
opportunity \ ?iad [escaped 

i 



4. When a man becomes overheated by working, running, rowing, 
or making furious speeches, the six or seven millions of perspiration 
tubes pour out their fluid, and the whole body is bathed and cooled. 

5. Milton said that he did not educate his daughters in the lan- 
guages, because one tongue was enough for a woman. 

6. Glaciers, flowing down mountain gorges, obey the law of rivers; 
the upper surface flows faster than the lower, and the center faster 
than the adjacent sides. 

7. Not to wear one's best things every day is a maxim of New 
England thrift, which is as little disputed as any verse in the cate- 
chism. 

8. Van Twiller's full-fed cheeks, which seemed to have taken toll of 

17 



05§ Supplementary and Review. 



everything that went into his mouth, were curiously mottled and 
streaked with dusky red, like a spitzenberg apple. 

9. It is one of the most marvelous facts in the natural w T orld that, 
ihough hydrogen is highly inflammable, and oxygen is a supporter of 
combustion, both, combined, form an element, water, which is destruc- 
tive to fire. 

10. In your war of 1812, when your arms on shore were covered by 
disaster, when Winchester had been defeated, when the Army of the 
Northwest had surrendered, and when the gloom of despondency hung, 
like a cloud, over the land, who first relit the fires of national glory, 
and made the welkin ring with the shouts of victory ? 



LESSON CXX. 

ANALYSIS-MISCELLANEOUS. 

1. Kind hearts are more than coronets, and simple faith than Nor- 
man blood. — Tennyson. 

2. I fear three newspapers more than a hundred-thousand bayonets. 
— Napoleon. 

3. He that allows himself to be a worm must not complain if he is 
trodden on. — Kant. 

4t. It is better to write one word upon the rock than a thousand on 
the water or the sand. — Gladstone. 

5. A breath of New England's air is better than a sup of Old 
England's ale. — Higginson. 

6. We are as near to heaven by sea as by land. — Sir H. Gilbert. 

7. Commend me to the preacher who has learned by experience what 
are human ills and what is human wrong. — Country Parson. 

8. He prayeth best who loveth best all things both great and small ; 
for the dear God who loveth us, he made and loveth all. — Coleridge. 

9. A ruler who appoints any man to an office when there is in his 
dominions another man better qualified for it sins against God and 
against the state. — Koran. 



Expansion of Phrases and Elliptical Expressions. 259 



10. There is a class among us so conservative that they are afraid the 
roof will come down if you sweep off the cobwebs. — Phillips. 

11. The evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is 
robbing the human race. — Mill. 

12. There is no getting along with Johnson ; if his pistol misses fire, 
he knocks you down with the butt of it. — Goldsmith. 

13. We think in words ; and, when we lack fit words, we lack fit 
thoughts. — White. 

14. To speak perfectly well one must feel that he has got to the 
bottom of his subject. — Whately. 

15. Office confers no honor upon a man who is worthy of it, and it 
will disgrace every man who is not. — Holla7id. 

16. The men whom men respect, the women whom women approve, 
are the men and women who bless their species. — Parton. 



LESSO N CXXI. 

EXPANSION OF PHRASES AND ELLIPTICAL EXPRES- 
SIONS. 

Participles may be expanded into different kinds of 
clauses. 

DIRECTION.— Expand the participles in these sentences into the 
clauses indicated :— 

1. Simon Peter, having a sword, drew it. (Adj. clause.) 

2. Desiring to live long, no one would be old. (Concession.) 

3. They went to the temple, suing for pardon. (Purpose.) 

4. White garments, reflecting the rays of the sun, are cool in sum' 
mer. (Cause.) 

5. Loved by all, he must have a genial disposition. (Reason.) 

6. Writing carefully, you will learn to write well. (Condition.) 

7. Sitting there, I heard the cry of " fire ! " (Time.) 



2(30 Supplementary and Review. 



8. She regrets not having read it. (Noun clause.) 

9. The icebergs floated down, cooling the air for miles around, 
(Ind. clause.) 

Absolute phrases may be expanded into different kinds of 
clauses. 

DIRECTION.— Expand these absolute phrases into the clauses 
indicated : — 

10. Troy being taken by the Greeks, ^Eneas came into Italy. (Time.) 

11. The bridges having been swept away, we returned. (Cause.) 

12. A cause not preceding, no effect is produced. (Condition.) 

13. All things else being destroyed, virtue could sustain itself. (Con- 
cession.) 

14. There being no dew this morning, it must have been cloudy or 
windy last night. (Reason.) 

15. The infantry advanced, the cavalry remaining in the rear. (Ind, 
clause.) 

Infinitive phrases may be expanded into different kinds 
of clauses. 

DIRECTION.— Expand these infinitive phrases into the clauses 
indicated :— 

16. They have nothing to wear. (Adj. clause.) 

17. The weather is so warm as to dissolve the snow. (Degree.) 

18. Herod will seek the young child to destroy it. (Purpose.) 

19. The adversative sentence faces, so to speak, half way about on 
hut. (Condition.) 

20. He is a fool to waste his time so. (Cause.) 

21. I shall be happy to hear of your safe arrival. (Time.) 

22. He does not know where to go. (Noun clause.) 

DIRECTION.— Complete these elliptical expressions :— 

23. And so shall Regulus, though dead, fight as he never fought 



Summary of Rules for Capital Letters and Punctuation. 261 



before. 24. Oh, that I might have one more day ! 25. He is braver 
than wise. 26. What if he is poor ? 27. He handles it as if it were 
glass (as = as he would handle it). 28. I regard him more as a historian 
than as a poet. 29. He is not an Englishman, but a Frenchman. 30. 
Much as he loved his wealth, he loved his children better (= Although 
he loved his wealth as much as he did love it, etc.). 31. I will go 
whether you go or not. 32. It happens with books as with mere 
acquaintances. 33. No examples, however awful, sink into the heart. 



LESSON CXXII. 

SUMMARY OF RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS AND 
PUNCTUATION. 

Capital Letters. — The first word of (1) a sentence, of 
(2) a line of poetry, of (3) a direct quotation making com- 
plete sense or a direct question introduced into a sentence, 
and of (4) phrases or clauses separately numbered or para- 
graphed should begin with a capital letter. Begin with a 
capital letter (5) proper names (including all names of the 
Deity), and words derived from them, (6) names of things 
vividly personified, and (7) most abbreviations. Write in 
capital letters (8) the words I and 0, and (9) numbers in 
the Roman notation.* 

Period.— Place a period after (1) a declarative or an im- 
perative sentence, (2) an abbreviation, (3) a number written 
in the Eoman notation, and (4) Arabic figures used to 
enumerate. 

* Small letters are preferred where numerous references to chapters, etc. are made. 



262 Supplementary and Review. 



Interrogation Point. — A direct interrogative sentence 
or clause should be followed by an interrogation point. 

Exclamation Point. — An exclamatory expression should 
be followed by an exclamation point. 

Comma. — Set oil by the comma (1) a phrase that is 
placed out of its natural order and made emphatic, or that 
is loosely connected with the rest of the sentence ; (2) an 
explanatory modifier which does not restrict the modified 
term or combine closely with it ; (3) a participle used as an 
adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, unless 
restrictive ; (4) the adjective clause, when not restrictive ; 
(5) the adverb clause, unless it closely follows and restricts 
the word it modifies ; (6) a word or phrase independent or 
nearly so ; (7) a direct quotation introduced into a sen- 
tence, unless formally introduced ; (8) a noun clause used 
as an attribute complement ; and (9) a term connected to 
another by or and having the same meaning. Separate by 
the comma (10) connected words and phrases, unless all the 
conjunctions are expressed ; (11) connected predicates and 
other phrases, when long or differently modified, though 
no conjunction is omitted ; and (12) co-ordinate clauses, 
when short and closely connected. Use the comma (13) 
to denote an omission of words ; (14) after as, namely, etc., 
introducing illustrations ; and (15) whenever it will prevent 
ambiguity or make the meaning clearer. 

DIRECTION — Give the Rule for each capital letter and each mark 
of punctuation in these sentences, except the colon, the semicolon, 
and the quotation marks :— 

1. Francis II. , Charles IX., and Henry III., three sons of Catherine 



Summary of Rules for Capital Letters and Punctuation. 263 



de Medici and Henry II., sat upon the French throne. 2. The pupil 
asked, " When shall I use 0, and when shall I use oh ?" 3. Purity of 
style forbids us to use : 1. Foreign words; 2. Obsolete words; 3. Low 
words, or slang. 4. It is easy, Mistress Dial, for you, who have always, 
as everybody knows, set yourself up above me, to accuse one of lazi- 
ness. 5. He rushed into the field, and, foremost fighting, fell. 6. The 
Holy Land was, indeed, among the early conquests of the Saracens, 
Caliph Omar having, in 637 a. d., taken Jerusalem. 7. The first 
maxim among philosophers, and men of sense everywhere is, that 
merit only, should make distinctions. 8. Truth is to be loved, purely 
and solely because it is true. 9. San Salvador, Oct. 12, 1492. 10 
Some letters are superfluous ; as, c and q. 

11. No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet 
To chase the glowing hours with flying feet ! 

DIRECTION.— TJ&e capital letters and the proper marks of punctu- 
ation in these sentences, and give your reasons :— 

12. and lo from the assembled crowd 
there rose a shout prolonged and loud 
that to the ocean seemed to say 

take her o bridegroom old and gray 

13. a large rough mantle of sheepskin fastened around the loins by a 
girdle or belt of hide was the only covering of that strange solitary 
man elijah the tishbite 14. the result however of the three years' reign 
or tyranny of jas ii was that wm of orange came over from holland and 
without shedding a drop of blood became a d 1688 wm iii of england 

15. o has three sounds : 1. that in note ; 2. that in not ; 3. that in move 

16. longfellow exclaims with what a glory comes and goes the year. 

17. spring is a fickle mistress but summer is more staid 18. if i may 
judge by his gorgeous colors and the exquisite sweetness and variety of 
his music autumn is i should say the poet of the family 19. new york 
apr 30 1789. 20. some letters stand each for many sounds ; as a and o. 
21. He can neither read nor write his own name. 



264 Supplementary and Review. 



LESSO N CXXII I, 

SUMMARY OF RULES-CONTINUED. 

Semicolon.— Co-ordinate clauses, (1) when slightly con- 
nected, or (2) when themselves divided by the comma, 
should be separated by the semicolon. Use the semicolon (3) 
between serial phrases or clauses having a common depend- 
ence on something which precedes or follows ; and (4) before 
as, to wit, namely, i. e., and that is, when they introduce 
examples or illustrations. 

DIRECTION.— Justify each capital letter and each mark of punc- 
tuation (except the colon) in these sentences :— 

1. It may cost treasure, and it may cost blood ; but it will stand, 
and it will richly compensate for both. 2. Some words are delightful 
to the ear ; as, Ontario, golden, oriole. 3. The shouts of revelry had 
died away ; the roar of the lion had ceased ; the last loiterer had retired 
from the banquet ; and the lights in the palace of the victor were extin- 
guished. 4. Send it to the public halls ; proclaim it there; let them 
hear it who heard the first roar of the enemy's cannon ; let them see it 
who saw their brothers and their sons fall on the field of Bunker Hill : 
and the very walls will cry out in its support. 

DIRECTION.— Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctu- 
ation in these sentences, and give your reasons :— 

5. all parts of a plant reduce to three namely root stem and leaf 
6. when the world is dark with tempests when thunder rolls and light- 
ning flies thou lookest in thy beauty from the clouds and laughest at 
the storm 7. the oaks of the mountains fall the mountains themselves 
decay with years the ocean shrinks and grows again the moon herself is 
lost in heaven 8. kennedy taking from her a handkerchief edged with 
gold pinned it over her eyes the executioners holding her by the arms 
led her to the block and the queen kneeling down said repeatedly with 
a firm voice into thy hands o lord i commend my spirit 



Summary of Rules -Continued. 265 



Colon.— Use the colon (1) between the parts of a sen- 
tence when these parts are themselves divided by the semi- 
colon, and (2) before a quotation or an enumeration of par- 
ticulars when formally introduced. 

DIRECTION.— Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctu- 
ation in these sentences :— 

9. You may swell every expense, and strain every effort, still more 
extravagantly ; accumulate every assistance you can beg and borrow; 
traffic and barter with every little, pitiful German prince that sells and 
sends his subjects to the shambles of a foreign country : your efforts are 
forever vain and impotent. 10. This is a precept of Socrates : * ' Know 
thyself." 

DIRECTION.— Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctu- 
ation in these sentences, and give your reasons : — 

11, the advice given ran thus take care of the minutes and the hours 
will take care of themselves 12. we may abound in meetings and move- 
ments enthusiastic gatherings in the field and forest may kindle all 
minds with a common sentiment but it is all in vain if men do not re- 
tire from the tumult to the silent culture of every right disposition 

DIRECTION.— Write sentences illustrating" the several uses of the 
semicolon, the colon, and the comma. 



LESSON CXXIV. 

SUMMARY OF RULES-CONTINUED. 

Dash* — Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of 
letters or figures, and (2) of such words as as, namely, or 
that is, introducing illustrations or equivalent expressions. 
Use the dash (3) where the sentence breaks off abruptly, 



266 Supplementary and Review. 



and the same thought is resumed after a slight suspension, 
or another takes its place ; and (4) before a word or phrase 
repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used 
(5) instead of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) follow 
other marks, adding to their force. 

DIRECTION.— Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctu- 
ation in these sentences :— t 

1. The most noted kings of Israel were the first three — Saul, 

David, and Solomon. 2. Art. 1-5 were inspired by Mr. J n, of 

W n. 3. And — "This to me?" he said. 4. Assyria, Greece, 

Rome, Carthage — what are they ? 5. I do not rise to supplicate you 
to be merciful toward the nation to which I belong, — toward a nation 
which, though subject to England, yet is distinct from it. 6. We 
know the uses— and sweet they are — of adversity. 7. My dear Sir, — 
I write this letter for information. 

DIRECTION.— Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctu- 
ation in these sentences, and give your reasons :— 

8. the human species is composed of two distinct races those who 
borrow and those who lend 9. this bill this infamous bill the way it 
has been received by the house the manner in which its opponents 
have been treated the personalities to which they have been subjected 
all these things dissipate my doubts 10. during the winter of 1775 76 
gen w n was besieging b n 11. lord marmion turned well was his 
need and dashed the rowels in his steed 

Maries of Parenthesis. — Marks of parenthesis may be 
used to enclose what has no essential connection with the 
rest of the sentence. 

Apostrophe. — Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omis- 
sion of letters, (2) in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and 



Summary of Rules— Continued. 267 



characters, and (3) to distinguish the possessive from other 
cases. 

Hyphen. — Use the hyphen (-) (1) between the parts of 
compound words that have not become consolidated, and 
(2) between syllables when a word is divided. 

Quotation Marks. — Use quotation marks to enclose a 
copied word or passage. If the quotation contains a quota- 
tion, the latter is enclosed within single marks.* (See pp. 
134, 135.) 

Brackets. — Use brackets [ ] to enclose what, in quoting 
another's words, you insert by way of explanation or correc- 
tion. 

niHECTIO N.— Justify the marks of punctuation used in these sen- 
tences :— 

12. Milton has acknowledged to me [Dryden] that Spenser was his 
original. 13. The last sentence of the composition was, "I close in 
the words of Patrick Henry : 'Give me liberty, or give me death.' " 
14. Telegraph-pole is a recent compound ; telegraph is divided thus : 
tel-e-graph. 15. The profound learning of Sir William Jones (he was 
master of twenty-eight languages), was the wonder of his contem- 
poraries. 16. By means of the apostrophe you know that love in 
mothers' love is a noun, and that i's is n't a verb. 17. We see by the 
hyphen that the o's in co-ordinate belong to different syllables, and 
that re-creation is not recreation. w 

DIRECTION.— JJ&e capital letters and the proper marks of punctu- 
ation in these sentences, and give your reasons :— 

18. next to a conscience void of offense without which by the bye 
life is nt worth the living is the enjoyment of the social feelings. 19. 
man the life boat. 20. dont neglect in writing to dot your is cross your 

* If, within the quotation having single marks, still another quotation is made, the 
double marks are again used. 



268 Supplementary and Review. 



ts and make your 7s unlike your 9s and dont in speaking omit the hs 
from such words as which when and why or insert rs in law saw and 
raw. 21. the scriptures tell us take no thought anxiety for the morrow 
22. The speaker said american oratory rose to its high water mark in 
that great speech ending liberty and union now and forever one and 
inseparable 28. What a lesson trench well says the word diligence con- 
tains 



LESSON CXXV. 

QUALITIES OF STYLE. 

Style is the manner in which one expresses himself, and 
in some respects it must reflect the writer. But there are 
some cardinal qualities which all good style must possess. 

I. Perspicuity. — Perspicuity is opposed to obscurity and ambiguity, 
and so means clearness of expression. This is an indispensable qual- 
ity ; if the thought is not understood or is misunderstood, it might 
as well have been left unuttered. Perspicuity depends mainly upon 
these few things : — 

1. One's Clear Understanding of what he attempts to say. — You 

cannot express to others more than you thoroughly know, or make 
your thought clearer to them than it is to yourself. 

2. The Unity of the Sentence. — Many thoughts or thoughts hav- 
ing no natural and close connection with each other should not be 
crowded into one sentence. 

3. The Use of the Right Words. — Use such words as convey your 
thought — each word expressing exactly your idea, no more, no less, no 
other. Do not omit words when they are needed. Be cautious in the 
use of he, she, it, they, etc. Use simple words, such as others can 
readily understand, and avoid words that have passed out of use, and 
those that have no footing in the language — foreign terms, words newly 
coined, and slang. 



Qualities of Style. 269 



4. A Happy Arrangement. — The relations of words to each othel 
should be obvious at a glance. The sentence should not need re- 
arrangement to disclose the meaning, or to unite dislocated parts. 

II. Energy. — By energy we mean vigor of expression. In ordinary 
discourse, it is not always to be sought. We use it when we wish to 
convince the intellect, arouse the feelings, and take captive the will — 
lead one to do something. When energetic, we select words for strength, 
and not for beauty ; choose specific, and not general, terms ; use few 
words, and crowd the sentence dense with thought ; place subordinate 
clauses before the independent, and the strongest clause of the sen- 
tence, the strongest sentence of the paragraph, and the strongest point 
of the discourse, last. Energetic thought is usually charged with 
intense feeling, and requires an impassioned delivery. 

III. Imagery — Figures of Speech.— Things stand in many relations 
to each other, some of which are these : they resemble each other in 
some particular ; they differ from each other in some particular ; they 
hold to each other a relation different from that of likeness or unlike- 
ness — that of cause to effect, sign to the thing signified, part to the 
whole, etc. Figures of Speech are those expressions in which, 
departing from our ordinary style in speaking of things, we assert 
or assume any of these relations. Imagery adds beauty to style, but it 
also makes the thought clearer and stronger — a diamond brooch may 
do duty while it adorns. 

A Simile is a figure in which we assert a resemblance between two 
things otherwise unlike ; as, "The gloom of despondency hung, like a 
cloud, over the land. " 

A Metaphor is a figure in which, assuming the resemblance between 
two things, we bring over and apply to one of them the term that 
denotes the other ; as, "Who carried your flag into the very chops of 
the British Channel, and bearded the lion in his den 9 " 

A Metonymy is a figure in which the name of one thing long asso- 
ciated with another in a relation not of likeness or unlikeness — of cause 
to effect or effect to cause, of container to the contained, of part to the 



O^Q Supplementary and Review. 



whole, of sign to the signified, of contiguity, of the instrument to the 
user, etc. — is taken to denote that other; as, " Please address the 
chair;" " One needs to listen to the organ before reading Milton" 

To the Teacher.— Question the pupils upon every point taken up in this Lesson, 
and require them to give illustrations where it is possible. 



LESSON CXXVI. 

PERSPICUITY-CRITICISM. 

DIMJECTIOJV.— Point out the offenses against Perspicuity below, 
and recast the sentences, making" them clear :— 

1 . A house on Remsen St. was burglarized last week, and to-day the 
thief was jailed. 2. Spain exported wool and some parts of Germany. 

3. The fire-place makes a person as hungry as one of Scott's novels. 

4. C ceteris paribus, the Saxon words in English are the best. 5. She 
went after dinner to show her ring and boast of being married to Mrs. 
Hill and the two housemaids. 6. It may be said of Southey that of 
all his contemporaries he was the greatest man. 7. To this succeeded 
that licentiousness which entered with the Restoration, and, from in- 
fecting our religion and morals, fell to corrupt our language, which 
last was not like to be much improved by those who at that time made 
up the Court of Charles II., so that the Court (which used to be the 
standard of propriety and correctness of speech) was then (and, I think, 
has ever since continued) the worst school in England for that accom^ 
plishment, and so will remain till better care be taken in the education 
of our nobility. 8. One might see with a coup d'ceil that he belonged 
to the beau monde. 9. All hope soured on me. 10. Please report any 
inattention of the waiters to the cashier. 11. It was now heightened 
into somewhat of a friendlier nature by the testimony so highly in his 
favor and bringing forward his disposition in so amiable a light which 
yesterday had produced. 12. Wordsworth's father and mother died in 
his boyhood ; his mother first, his father when he was fourteen. 13. 
Juventus, the hero, is bent on going it while he is young. 



Perspicuity— Criticism. 271 



DIRECTION.— Point out the faults, and recast these sentences, 
making* them clear :— 
(Some may have each many meanings ; give these.) 

14. James's son, Charles I., before the breath was out of his bod^ 
was proclaimed king in his stead. 15. He told the coachman that he 
would be the death of him, if he did not take care what he was about, 
and mind what he said. 16. Richelieu said to the king that Mazarin 
would carry out his policy. 17. He was overjoyed to see him, and he 
sent for one of his workmen, and told him to consider himself at his 
service. 18. Fieschi discharged an " infernal machine" at the king 
as he passed his window. 

DIBJECTIOK.— Place these subordinate clauses where they will 
remove the obscurity, and then see in how many ways each sentence 
can be arranged :— 

19. The moon cast a pale light on the graces that were scattered 
around, as it peered above the horizon. 20. A large number of seats 
were occupied by pupils that had no backs. 21. Often as many as five 
dead bodies lay festering in a single house which no one could be 
induced to drag to the nearest ditch and bury. 22. The old den of 
Mohammedan pirates in Algiers is now one of the favorite resorts of 
European travelers, whose delicious climate is soft without being ener- 
vating. 23. People had to travel on horseback and in wagons, which 
was a very slow way, if they traveled at all. 24. How can brethren 
partake of their Father's blessing that curse each other ? 25. Two men 
will be tried for crimes in this town which are punishable with death, 
if a full court should attend. 

TUMECTION. — Each of these sentences may have two meanings ; 
supply two ellipses, and remove the ambiguity :— 

26. Let us trust no strength less than thine. 27. Study had more 
attraction for him than his friend. 28. He did not like the new 
teacher so well as his playmates. 29. He aimed at nothing less than 
the crown. 30. Lovest thou me more than these ? 



272 Supplementary and. Review. 



LESSON CXXVI I. 

PERSPICUITY-CRITICISM. 

DIRECTION.— "Place these italicized -words and phrases where they 
will remove obscurity and ambiguity, and then see in how many 
ways each sentence can be arranged :— 

1. These designs any man who is a Briton in any situation ought 
to disavow. 2. In one evening I counted twenty-seven meteors sit- 
ting on my piazza. 3. Hay is given to horses as well as corn, to dis- 
tend the stomach. 4. Boston has forty first class grammar-schools, 
exclusive of Dorchester. 5. He rode to town, and drove twelve cows 
on horseback. 6. He could not face an enraged father in spite of Ms 
effrontery. 7. Threatening to cut my head off once a quarter. 8. But 
she had her share of business as well as her aunt. 9. He wanted to go 
to sea, although it was contrary to the wishes of his parents, at the age 
of eighteen. 10. It is of use to society that there should be polyglot 
waiters who can tell when the train starts in four or five languages. 
11. In Paris, every lady in full dress rides. 12. 1 saw my friend when 
I was in Boston walking down Tremont street. 13. One can pass by 
what does not affect himself with a laugh or a shrug of indifference. 
14. What is his coming or going to you f 15. We do those things fre- 
quently which we repent of afterwards. 16. I rushed out leaving the 
wretch with his tale half told, horror-stricken at his crime. 17. Ex- 
clamation points are scattered up and down the page by compositors 
without any mercy. 18. I want to make a present to one who is fond 
of chickens for a Christmas gift. 

DIRJECTIOK.-lff.Sike these sentences clear by using simpler words 
and phrases :— 

19. A devastating conflagration raged. 20. He conducted her to the 
altar of Hymen. 21. A donkey has an abnormal elongation of auricular 
appendages. 22. Are you excavating a subterranean canal f 23. He 
had no capillary substance on the summit of his cranium. 24. He made 
a sad faux pas. 25. A network is anything reticulated or decussated, 



Energy— Criticism. 273 



with interstices at equal distances between the intersections. 26. Dili- 
gence is the sine qua non of success. 27. She has donned the habiliments 
of woe, 28. The deceased was to-day deposited in his last resting-place. 
29. The inmates proceeded to the sanctuary. 30. I have partaken of 
my morning repast. 31. He took the initiative in inaugurating the 
ceremony. 



LESSON CXXVIII. 

ENERGY— CRITICISM. 

DIRECTION.— Expand these brief expressions intr sentences full 
of long: words, and note the loss of energy :— 

1. To your tents, Israel ! 2. Up, boys, and at Lem ! 3. Indeed ! 
4. Bah ! 5. Don't give up the ship ! 6. Murder Will out ! 7. Oh ! 8. 
Silence there ! 9. Hurrah ! 10. Death or free speech ! 11. Eascal ! 
12. No matter. 13. Least said, soonest me^ued. 14. Death to the 
tyrant ! 15. I'll none of it. 16. Help, ho \ 17. Shame on you ! 18- 
First come, first served. 

niMJECTION.— Condense these italicized expressions into one or 
two words, and note the gain :— 

19. He shuffled off this mortal coil yesterday. 20. The author sur- 
passed all those who were living at the same time with him. 21. To say 
that revelation is a thing which there is no need of is to talk wildly. 
22. He departed this life. 23. Some say that ever 'gainst that season 
comes wherein our Saviour's birth is celebrated this bird of dawning 
singeth all night long. 

DIKJECTION.— Chang-e these specific words to general terms, and 
note the loss of energry :— 

24. Don't fire till you see the whites of their eyes. 25. Break down 

the dikes, give Holland back to ocean. 26. Three hundred men held 

the hosts of Xerxes at bay. 27. I sat at her cradle, I followed her 

Jiearse. 28. Their daggers have stabbed Caesar. 29. When I'm mad, I 

12* 



274: Supplementary and Review. 



weigh a ton. 30. Burn Moscow, starve bach the invaders. 31. There's 
no use in crying over spilt milk. 32. In proportion as men delight in 
battles and bull-fights, will they punish by hanging, burning, and the 
rack. 

DIMECTION.—Ch.a,ia.ge these general terms to specific words, and 
note the grain in energy :— 

33. Anne Boleyn was executed. 34. It were better for him that a heavy 
weight were fastened to him, and that he were submerged in the waste of 
waters. 35 , The capital of the chosen people was destroyed by a Roman 
general. 36. Consider the flowers how they increase in size. 37. Caesar 
was slain by tbe conspirators. 38. The cities of the plain were anni- 
hilated. 

DIRECTION.^ \rrang-e these words, phrases, and clauses in the 
order of their strength, placing" the strongest last, and note the grain 
in energy :— 

39. The nations of tfu earth repelled, surrounded, pursued, and re- 
sisted him. 40. He was nc longer consul nor citizen nor general nor 
even an emperor, but a prisoner and an exile. 41. I shall die an Ameri- 
can ; I live an American ; I was born an American. 42. All that I am, 
all that I hope to* be, and all that I have in this life, I am now ready 
here to stake upon it. 43. I shall defend it without this House, in all 
places, and within this House ; at all times, in time of peace and in 
time of war. 44. We must fight if we wish to be free, if we mean to 
preserve inviolate our rights, if we do not mean to abandon the 
struggle. 



LESSON CXXIX. 

FIGURES OF SPEECH-CRITICISM. 

DIRECTION.— Name these figures of speech, and then recast each 
sentence, using* plain language, and note the loss of beauty and 
force :— 

1. Lend me your ears. 2. The robin knows when your grapes have 



Figures of Speech— Criticism. 275 



eooked long enough in the sun. 3. A day will come when bullets and 
bombs shall be replaced by ballots. 4. Caesar were no lion were not 
Romans hinds. 5. The soul of Jonathan was knit to that of David. 
6. Borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 7. He will bring down my 
gray hairs with sorrow to the grave. 8. The pen is mightier than the 
sword. 9. The pew not unf requently has got beyond the teaching of 
the pulpit. 10. The destinies of mankind were trembling in the balance, 
while death fell in showers. 11. Cassius, you are yoked with a lamb, 
that carries anger as the flint bears fire. 12. The Morn in russet mantle 
clad walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill. 13. The air bites 
shrewdly. 14. He doth bestride the narrow world like a Colossus. 15. 
My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar. 16. The gray-eyed Mom 
smiles on the frowning Night. 17. The good is often buried with men's 
bones. 18. Beware of the bottle. 19. All nations respect our flag. 
20. I have no spur to prick the sides of my intent. 21. I am as con- 
stant as the northern star. 22. Then burst his mighty heart. 23. 
Lentulus returned with victorious eagles. 24. Death hath sucked the 
honey of thy breath. 25. Our chains are forged. 26. T have bought 
golden opinions. 27. His words fell softer than snows on the brine. 
28. Night's candles are burned out, and jocund Day stands tiptoe on 
the misty mountain top. 

DIRECTION*— In the first four sentences, use similes; in the 
second, four, metaphors ; in the last four, metonymies :— 

29. He flew ivith the swift?iess of an arrow. 30. In battle some men 
are brave, others are cowardly. 31. His head is as full of plans as it can 
hold. 32. I heard a loud noise. 33. Boston is the place where American 
liberty began. 34. Our dispositions should grow mild as we grow old. 
35. The stars can no longer be seen. 36. In battle some men are brave, 
others are cowardly. 37. Can old age make folly venerable V 38. I ab- 
jure all dwellings. 39. The water is boiling. 40. Your flashes of mer- 
riment that were wont to set the banqueters on a roar. 

D IRECTION.— The parts of a figure should agree, and should unite 
to form one whole. Correct these errors :— 

41. The devouring fire uprooted the stubble. 42. The brittle thread 



276 Supplementary and Review. 



of life may be cut asunder. 43. All the ripe fruit of three-score years 
was blighted in a day. 44. Unravel the obscurities of this knotty ques- 
tion. 45. We must apply the axe to the fountain of this evil. 46. The 
man stalks into court like a motionless statue, with the cloak of hypoc- 
risy in his mouth. 47. The thin mantle of snow dissolved. 48. The 
chariot of day peers over the mountain top. 

DIRECTION— Bring into the class examples of the various imag-es 
illustrated above. 



LESSON CXXX. 

VERSIFICATION. 

Mission of Poetry. — In its purpose and in its effects, poetry is 
closely akin to music and to painting. Like these it is addressed to 
the feelings rather than to the intellect, aims to please rather than to 
instruct. Poetry deals with the beautiful in the worlds of matter and 
mind ; and everything in its choice of words and their arrangement, in 
the imagery with which it abounds, and in the form into which it is 
cast is in keeping with its spirit. 

Form. — Of its form we may say a few words. Poetry is so writ- 
ten that in reading it aloud it permits and requires a strong impulse of 
voice followed by a weak, or a weak impulse followed by a strong. 
This arrangement of its words, requiring alternate stress and remission 
in reading, constitutes the rhythm of poetry. For this compound 
movement of the voice, two or three syllables are needed, and this 
group of syllables is called a foot. This stress, stroke, or strong im- 
pulse of the voice we call the rhythm-accent ; and in English and 
other modern poetry this accent must never fall upon a syllable unac- 
cented in prose, that is, in the dictionary. 

Names of Feet. — There are five feet of which we need here to speak 
— two dissyllabic and three trisyllabic. A trochee is a dissyllabic foot 



Versification. 277 



accented on the first syllable, ^ ^; an ianibus is a dissyllabic foot 
accented on the second syllable, w ^. ; a dactyl is a trisyllabic foot 
accented on the first syllable, ^ w w ; an amphibrach is a trisyllabic 
foot accented on the second syllable, w -^ w ; and an anapaest is a 
trisyllabic foot accented on the third syllable, ^ w ■-*.'. 

Scanning, or Scansion, is the reading of poetry so as to mark its 
rhythm. Let us take a few verses in which these several feet are found, 
and mark the lines for scanning. 

Lines with trochaic feet ;-— 

.£. w J. \J JL KJ 

We are | blushing | roses 

Bending | with our | fullness. 
Lines with iambic feet : — 

Thy soul | was like | a star | and dwelt | apart ; 

Thou hadst | a voice | whose sound | was like | the sea. 
Lines with dactylic feet : — 

Touch her not | scornfully ; 

Think of her | mournfully, 

Gently and | humanly ; 

J- \J \J M kj \J 

Not of the | stains of her, 

J~ W \J J- \J KJ 

All that re | mains of her 

>£- v^» w •£- W \j 

Now is pure | womanly. 
Lines with amphibrachic feet : — 

As if I | had lived it | or dreamed it. 
As if II had acted I or schemed it. 



278 Supplementary and Review. 



Lines with anapasstic feet : — 

\S ^ .£. Ks V^ -£- W V_<» .£. KJ v-/ -£■ 

I will go | to my tent [ and lie down | in despair, 
I will paint | me with black | and will sev | er my hair ; 
I will sit [ on the shore | where the hur | ricane blows, 
And reveal | to the god | of the tern | pest my woes. 

Poems illustrating the* several Feet. — For trochaic verse, see 
Poe's Raven, Longfellow's Hiawatha, Tennyson's Locksley Hall, 
Burns's Bannockburn, Saxe's Rhyme of the Rail, Charles Wesley's 
Christ, the Refuge of the Soul, and Whittier's Angels of Buena Vista. 

For iambic, look anywhere — it is by far the most abundant of all. 
Paradise Lost, The Deserted Village, The Faerie Queene, Pope's Essay 
on Man, etc., etc., and most lyric and pastoral poetry as well as epic 
illustrate it. 

Dactylic verse is rare. Examples of it are Hood's Bridge of 
Sighs, Tennyson's Charge of the Light Brigade, Heber's Christmas 
Hymn, and Longfellow's Evangeline, 

Examples of amphibrachic verse are Moore's Dear Harp of My 
Country and The Meeting of the Waters, Byron's Napoleon's Farewell, 
Burns's My Nanie's Awa, and Woodworth's Old Oaken Bucket. 

For Anapaestic verse, see Byron's Destruction of Sennacharib, pas- 
sages in Moore's Lalla Rookh, and the Indian's Lament. 

Substitution of Feet. — It must not be supposed that all the feet of 
a poem are necessarily of the same kind. The substitutions of other 
feet for the prevailing foot are very frequent. Most of the poems just 
instanced as illustrating the several kinds of verse contain substituted 
feet. It is sometimes difficult to tell what the prevailing rhythm was 
meant to be. 

Take this stanza from Tennyson : — 



Versification. 279 



Break, | break, | break, 

vy W J- \J JL KJ •£- 

On thy cold | gray stones, | Sea ! 

W \j J- KJ \J J- \j JL \J 

And I would | that my tongue | could utter 

KJ J-. \J \J. JL \J JL 

The thoughts | that arise | in me. 

The first line is made up of three monosyllabic feet — a foot so rare that 
we thought it scarcely worth describing above. The second line has 
one anapaest and two iambuses, the third two anapaests and one amphi- 
brach, and the fourth has the feet of the second, but in another order, 
Take this from Bryant : — 

\J JL KJ \J J- KJ JL \J JL 

Stand here | by my side | and turn, | I pray, 

\J ■ \J Jl KJ J- \J JL \j J- 

On the lake | below | thy gen | tie eyes ; 

V^ JL \S JL \j KJ 'JL \J KJ JL 

The clouds | hang over | it, heavy | and gray, 

Vy JL \J JL \J \J JL \_f JL 

And dark | and silent | the wa | ter lies ; 

\J JL \J \^/ JL \j J- \J JL 

And out | of that fro | zen mist | the snow 

\J JL KJ \J JL KJ JL KJ JL 

In waver | ing flakes | begins | to flow ; 

JL JL KJ JL 

Flake | after | flake, 

\J JL \j y^j JL KJ JL KJ JL 

They sink | in the dark | and si | lent lake. 

The limit to this substitution seems to be this : (1) two accented 
syllables must not come together — though, as is seen in the first line 
from Tennyson and the seventh from Bryant, this rule is violated by 
monosyllabic feet ; — and (2) not more than two clearly pronounced un- 
accented feet must occur successively. 

DIRECTION.— Find other easy selections for scanning, and deter- 
mine the prevailing foot and the substituted feet. See (4), (8), (10X 
(13), pp. 281-284. 



250 Supplementary and Review. 



Meter. — Meter is the quality of a poem determined by the number 
of feet in a line. The meter of a line consisting of two feet is called 
dimeter ; of one of three feet, trimeter ; of four feet, tetrameter ; 
of five feet, pentameter ; of six feet — rare in English, — hexameter. 

DIRECTION.— Study the meter of the poetical selections on pages 
280-283. 

Rhyme. — Rhyme is the accordance in sound of the final syllables of 
lines. The rhyming syllables must not be completely identical in sound, 
they need be identical only from (and including) the accented vowel to 
the end. The rhymes snow and flow above illustrate this. 

But rhyming is not easy in English — so few words or endings of 
words have the same sound. Much of our poetry is written without 
rhyme. This is called Blank- Verse. 

DIRECTION.— Point out the blank-verse in pages 282-285, and note 
what are the rhyming" lines, or couplets, in the remaining extracts of 
the same pages. 

ADDITIONAL SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 

To the Teacher.— Should additional work be needed for reviews or for maturer 
classes, the following selections will afford profitable study. Let the pupils translate 
these passages into their own language, and discuss the thought and the construction. 
We should not here advise full formal analyses, either oral or by diagram. 

1. Speak clearly, if you speak at all ; 

Carve every word before you let it fall. — Holmes. 

2. The robin and the blue-bird, piping loud, 

Filled all the blossoming orchards with their glee ; 

The sparrows chirped as if they still were proud 
Their race in Holy Writ should mentioned be ; 

And hungry crows, assembled in a crowd, 
Clamored their piteous prayer incessantly, 

Knowing who hears the ravens cry, and said, 

" Give us, Lord, this day our daily bread ! " — Longfellow. 



Additional Selections for Analysis. 281 



3. Better to stem with heart and hand 
The roaring tide of life than lie, 
Unmindful, on its flowery strand, 
Of God's occasions drifting by. 
Better with naked nerve to bear 
The needles of this goading air 
Than, in the lap of sensual ease, forego 
The godlike power to do, the godlike aim to know. 

— Whittier. 

4. Then to side with Truth is noble when we share her 

wretched crusjfc, 
Ere her cause bring fame and profit, and 't is prosperous 

to be just ; 
Then it is the brave man chooses, while the coward 

stands aside, 
Doubting in his abject spirit, till his Lord is w 

crucified. — Lowell. 

5. On this question of principle, while actual suffering was yet afar 
<5ff, they [our fathers] raised their flag against a power to which, for pur- 
poses of foreign conquest and subjugation, Rome, in the height of her 
glory, is not to be compared — a power which has dotted over the sur- 
face of the whole globe with her possessions and military posts ; whose 
morning drum-beat, following the sun and keeping company with the 
hours, circles the earth daily with one continuous and unbroken strain 
of the martial airs of England. — Webster, 

6. In some far-away and yet undreamt-of hour, I can even imagine 
that England may cast all thoughts of possessive wealth back to the 
barbaric nations among whom they first arose ; and that, while the 
sands of the Indus and adamant of Golconda may yet stiffen the hous- 
ings of the charger and flash from the turban of the slave, she, as a 



282 Supplementary and Review. 



Christian mother, may at last attain to the virtues and the treasures of 
a Heathen one, and be able to lead forth her Sons, saying, — ''These 
are my Jewels." — Rusldn. 

7. And, when those who have rivaled her [Athens's] greatness shall 
have shared her fate ; when civilization and knowledge shall have fixed 
their abode in distant continents ; when the scepter shall have passed 
away from England ; when, perhaps, travelers from distant regions 
shall in vain labor to decipher on some mouldering pedestal the name 
of our proudest chief, shall hear savage hymns chanted to some mis- 
shapen idol over the ruined dome of our proudest temple, and shall see 
a single naked fisherman wash his nets in the river of the ten thousand 
masts, — her influence and her glory will still survive, fresh in eternal 
youth, exempt from mutability and decay, immortal as the intellect- 
ual principle from which they derived their origin, and over which 
they exercise their control. — Macaulay. 

8. To him who in the love of Nature holds 

Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language ; for his gayer hours 
She has a voice of gladness and a smile 
And eloquence of beauty, and she glides 
Into his darker musings with a mild 
And healing sympathy, that steals away 
Their sharpness ere he is aware. When thoughts 
Of the last, bitter hour come like a blight 
Over thy spirit, and sad images 
Of the stern agony and shroud and pall 
And breathless darkness and the narrow house 
Make thee to shudder and grow sick at heart, —» 
Go forth under the open sky, and list 
To Nature's teachings, while from all around— » 
Earth and her waters and the depths of air- 
Comes a still voice. — Bryant. / 



Additional Selections for Analysis. 283 



Pleasant it was, when woods were green, 

And winds were soft and low, 
To lie amid some sylvan scene, 
Where, the long drooping boughs between, 
Shadows dark and sunlight sheen 

Alternate come and go ; 
Or where the denser grove receives 

No sunlight from above, 
But the dark foliage interweaves 
In one unbroken roof of leaves, 
Underneath whose sloping eaves 

The shadows hardly move. — Longfellow. 



10, That orbed maiden with white fire laden, 

Whom mortals call the moon, 
Glides glimmering o'er my fleece-like floor, 

By the midnight breezes strewn ; 
And wherever the beat of her unseen feet, 

Which only the angels hear, 
May have broken the woof of my tent's thin roof, 

The stars peep behind her and peer ; 
And I laugh to see them whirl and flee 

Like a swarm of golden bees, 
When I widen the rent in my wind-built tent, 

Till the calm river, lakes, and seas, 
Like strips of the sky fallen through me on high, 

Are each paved with the moon and these. 

— Shelley. — The Cloud, 

11. Stranger, these gloomy boughs 
Had charms for him ; and here he loved to sit, 
His only visitants a straggling sheep, 



28-i Supplementary and Review. 



The stone-chat, or the glancing sand-piper ; 
And on these barren rocks, with fern and heath 
And juniper and thistle sprinkled o'er, 
Fixing his downcast eye, he many an hour 
A morbid pleasure nourished, tracing here 
An emblem of his own unfruitful life ; 
And, lifting up his head, he then would gaze 
On the more distant scene — how lovely 't is 
Thou seest, — and he would gaze till it became 
Far lovelier, and his heart could not sustain 
The beauty, still more beauteous. — Wordsworth. 



12. Good name in man and woman, dear my lord, 
Is the immediate jewel of their souls. 

Who steals my purse steals trash ; 't is something, nothing ; 
'T was mine, 't is his, and has been slave to thousands : 
But he that niches from me my good name 
Robs me of that which not enriches him, 
And makes me poor indeed. — Shakespeare. 

13. The drawbridge dropped with a surly clang, 
> And through the dark arch a charger sprang, 
Bearing Sir Launfal, the maiden knight, 
In his gilded mail, that flamed so bright 
It seemed the dark castle had gathered all 
Those shafts the fierce sun had shot over its wall 
In his siege of three hundred summers long, 
And, binding them all in one blazing sheaf, 
Had cast them forth ; so, young and strong, 
And lightsome as a locust leaf, 
Sir Launfal flashed forth in his unscarred mail 
To seek in all climes for the Holy Grail. — Lowell, 



Additional Selections for Analysis. 285 



14. But, when the next sun brake from underground, 
Then, those two brethren slowly with bent brows 
Accompanying, the sad chariot-bier 
Past like a shadow thro' the field, that shone 
Full-summer, to that stream whereon the barge, 
Pall'd all its length in blackest samite, lay. 
There sat the life-long creature of the house, 
Loyal, the dumb old servitor, on deck, 
Winking his eyes, and twisted all his face. 
So those two brethren from the chariot took 
And on the black decks laid her in her bed, 
Set in her hand a lily, o'er her hung 
The silken case with braided blazonings, 
And kiss'd her quiet brows, and, saying to her, 
"Sister, farewell forever," and again, 
"Farewell, sweet sister," parted all in tears. — Tennyson* 



15. When I consider how my light is spent 

Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, 
And that one talent, which is death to hide, 
Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent 
To serve therewith my Maker, and present 
My true account, lest he, returning, chide, — 
" Doth God exact day-labor, light denied ? " 
I fondly ask : but Patience, to prevent 
That murmur, soon replies, " God doth not need 
Either man's work or his own gifts ; who best 
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best : his state 
Is kingly ; thousands at his bidding speed, 
And post o'er land and ocean without rest ; 
They also serve who only stand and wait." 

— Milton. — Sonnet on his Blindness, 



23(5 Supplementary and Review. 



LETTER-WRITING REVIEWED AND CONTINUED. 

In writing a letter there are seven things to consider — the 
Heading, the Address, the Salutation, the Body, the 
Complimentary Close, the Signature, and the Super- 
scription. 

The Heading-. 

Parts. — The Heading consists of the name of the place at which 
the letter is written, and the date. If you write from a city, give 
the door-number, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the 
name of the state. If you are at a hotel or a school or any other 
well-known institution, its name may take the place of the door- 
number and the name of the street, as may also the number of your 
post-office box. If you write from a village or other country place, 
give your post-office address, the name of the county, and that of the 
state. This part of the Heading should show your correspondent 
where to send his reply. If you wish the reply sent elsewhere, give full 
directions after the signature. 

The date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year. 

How Written. — Begin the Heading an inch or more from the top of 
the page. If the letter occupies but a few lines of a single page, you 
may begin the Heading lower down. Begin the first line of the Head- 
ing a little to the left of the middle of the page. If it occupies more 
than one line, the second line should begin farther to the right than 
the first, and the third farther to the right than the second. The place 
and date are sometimes put below the signature, at the left of the 
page. 

The door-number, the day of the month, and the year are written in 
figures ; the rest, in words. Each important word begins with a capital 
letter, each item is set off by the comma, and the whole closes with a 
period. 

The Address. 

Parts. — The Address consists of the name, the title, and the place 



Letter-Writing Reviewed and Continued, 287 



of business or residence of the one to whom the letter is written. 
Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the Address. Prefix 
Mr. to a man's name ; Messrs. to the names of several gentlemen ; 
Master to the name of a lad ; Miss to the name of a young lady ; Mrs. 
to the name of a married lady ; Misses to the names of several young 
ladies ; and Mesdames to the names of several married or elderly 
ladies. Prefix Dr. to the name of a physician, or write M. D. after his 
name. Prefix Rev. (or The Rev.) to the name of a clergyman, or The 
Rev. Mr. if you do not know his Christian name ; The Rev. Br. if he 
is a Doctor of Divinity, or write The Rev. before the name and D.D. 
after it. Prefix His Excellency* to the name of a Governor or of 
an Ambassador ; Hon. (or The Hon.) to the name of a Cabinet Officer, 
a Member of Congress, a State Senator, a Law Judge, or a Mayor. 
Esq. is added to the name of a lawyer, and sometimes to the names 
of other prominent persons. If two literary or professional titles are 
added to a name, let them stand in the order in which they were con- 
ferred — this is the order of a few common ones : A.M., Ph.D., D.D., 
LL.D.\ Guard against an excessive use of titles — the higher implies 
the lower. Do not use two titles of the same meaning. Avoid such 
combinations as the following : Mr. Dr. Brown ; Dr. Brown, M.D. ; 
Mr. Brown, M.D. ; Mr. Brown, A.M.; Dr. Brown, Ph.D.; Mr. 
Brown, Esq. Such as the following, however, are allowed : Mrs. Dr. 
Brown ; Mrs. General Scott. 

How Written. — In a business letter the Address should follow the 
Heading, beginning on the next line, or the next but one, and stand- 
ing on the left side of the page. In a familiar letter the Address is 
generally placed at the end, on the left side of the page, beginning on 
the next line below the signature. There should always be a narrow 
margin on the left-hand side of the page, and the Address should 

* His Excellency was formerly used in addressing the President ; but the preferred 
form is, To the President, Executive Mansion, Washington, D. C. ; the Salutation is 
simply, Mr. President. 

t See List of Abbreviations, p. 319. 



23S Supplementary and Review. 



always begin on the marginal line. If the Address occupies more 
than one line, the initial words of these lines should slope to the 
right, as in the Heading. 

Every important word in the Address should begin with a capita\ 
letter ; all the items of it should be set off by the comma ; and, as it 
is an abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period. 

The Salutation. 

Forms. — Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or 
the writer's degree of intimacy with him ; as, Sir, Reverend Sir, Rev. 
and dear Sir, General, Madam, Miss Brown, * Dear Sir, Dear Madam, 
Dear Miss Brown, Dear Friend, Friend Brown, Friend James, Dear 
Cousin, My dear Sir, My dear Madam, My dear Miss Brown, My 
dear Friend, My dear Jones, My dear Wife, My dear Boy, Dearest 
Ellen, etc. 

How Written. — Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a 
little to the right of it when the Address occupies three lines ; on the 
marginal line, or a little farther to the right than the first line, or a 
little farther than the second line, of the Address when this occupies 
two lines ; a little to the right of the marginal line when the Address 
occupies one line ; on the marginal line when the Address stands 
below. 

The first word and every noun in the Salutation should begin with a 
capital letter, and the whole should be followed by a comma, or by a 
comma and a dash. 

The Body of the Letter. 

The Beginning. — Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the 
Salutation, and on the same line, if the Introduction (= address and 

* Miss is not used alone as a Salutation. In addressing a young unmarried lady 
the near repetition of Miss is generally avoided by omitting the Salutation and using 
the Address alone, or by placing the Address at the end of the letter. We can see 
no good reason for restricting Madam or Dear Madam to married and elderly ladies. 



Letter- Writing Reviewed and Continued. 289 



salutation) is long — in which case the comma after the Salutation 
should be followed by a dash ; — on the line below, if the Introduction 
is short. 

Style.-— Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds 
of writing. Spell correctly, write legibly and with care. Avoid blots, 
erasures, interlineations, cross lines, and all other offenses against 
'epistolary propriety. The letter "bespeaks the man." Letters of 
friendship should be colloquial, chatty, and familiar. Whatever is 
interesting to you will be interesting to your friends, however trivial it 
may seem to a stranger. If addressing one of your family, write just 
as you feel, only feel right. 

I Business letters should be short, and to the point. Repeat nothing, 
and omit nothing needful. 

Official letters and formal notes should be more stately and ceremoni- 
ous. In formal notes the third person is generally used instead of the 
first and the second. No Heading, Address, or Salutation is placed at 
the beginning, and no Complimentary Close or Signature at the end. 
The name of the place and the date, when given, are written at the 
bottom, thus : — 

Mr. and Mrs. A request the pleasure of Mr. I?s company at a social 
gathering, on Tuesday evening, November fifteenth, at eight o? clock. 
32 Fifth Ave. 

Mr. B accepts with pleasure [or declines with sincere regret *] Mr. 
and Mrs. A's kind invitation [or the polite invitation of Mr. and Mrs. 
A] for Tuesday evening, November fifteenth. 

10 Astor Place, Nov. 6th. 

The Complimentary Close and the Signature. 

Forms.— The forms of the Complimentary Close are many, and are 

* Or regrets that a previous engagement (or illness, or an unfortunate event) pre- 
vents the acceptance of ; or regrets that on account of he is unable to 

accept . 

13 



^90 Supplementary and Review. 



determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In 
letters of friendship you may use, Your sincere friend ; Yours affec- 
tionately ; Your loving son or daughter, etc. In business letters you 
may use, Yours ; Yours truly ; Truly yours ; Yours respectfully ; Very 
respectfully yours, etc. In official letters you should be more defer- 
ential. Use, / have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient servant ; Very 
respectfully, your most obedient servant, etc. Among other forms are, — 
Very truly yours ; Believe me sincerely yours ; I am, dear sir, yours 
most respectfully ; I am very sincerely your friend ; Faithfully yours ; 
Cordially yours ; Yours very cordially ; Most respectfully yours ; I re- 
main very truly your friend ; Sincerely and gratefully yours ; I remain 
yours faithfully ; Yours, as ever ; Your affectionate friend; With 

kindest regards, ever affectionately . Do not write, Yours, etc. 

The Signature consists of your Christian name and your surname. 
In addressing a stranger write your Christian name in full. A lady 
addressing a stranger should prefix, to her signature, her title, Mrs. or 
Miss (placing it within marks of parenthesis if preferred), unless in the 
letter she has indicated which of these titles her correspondent is to 
use in reply. 

How Written. — The Complimentary Close should begin near the 
middle of the first line below the Body of the Letter ; and, if occupying 
two or more lines, should slope to the right like the Heading and the 
Address. Begin each line of it with a capital letter, punctuate as in 
other writing, and separate it from the signature by the comma. The 
Signature should be very plain and should be followed by the period. 

The Superscription. 

Parts. — The Superscription is what is written on the outside of the 
envelope. It is the same as the Address, consisting of the name, the 
title, and the full directions of the one addressed. 

How Written. — The Superscription should begin near the middle 
of the left side of the envelope and should occupy three or four 



Letter- Writing Reviewed and Continued. 291 



lines. These lines should slope to the right % as in the Heading and the 
Address, the spaces between the lines should be the same, and the last 
line should end near the lower right-hand corner. On the first line the 
name and the title should stand. If the one addressed is in a city, 
the door-number and name of the street should be on the second line, 
the name of the city on the third, and the name of the state on the 
fourth. If he is in the country, the name of the post-office should be 
on the second line, the name of the county on the third, the name of 
the state on the fourth. The number of the post-office box may take 
the place of the door-number and the name of the street, or, to avoid 
crowding, the number of the post-office box or the name of the county 
may stand at the lower left-hand corner. The titles following the 
name should be separated from it and from each other by the comma, 
and every line should end with a comma, except the last, which should 
be followed by a period. The lines should be straight, and every part 
of the Superscription should be legible. Place the stamp at the upper 
right-hand corner. 



292 



Supplementary and Review. 



LISTS FOR REFERENCE-PREPOSITIONS. 



Aboard, 


athwart, 


ere, 


till, 


about, 


before, 


for, 


to, 


above, 


behind, 


from, 


toward, 


across, 


below, 


in, 


towards, 


after, 


beneath, 


into, 


under, 


against, 


beside, 


of, 


underneath. 


along, 


besides, 


on, 


until, 


amid, 


between, 


over, 


unto, 


amidst, 


betwixt, 


past, 


up, 


among, 


beyond. 


round, 


upon, 


amongst, 


but, 


since, 


with, * 


around, 


by, 


through, 


within, 


at, 


down, 


throughout, 


without. 



Remark. — Bating, concerning, during, excepting, notwithstanding, 
pending, regarding, respecting, saving, and touching are partici- 
ples in form, and sometimes are such in use. But in most cases 
the participial meaning has faded out of them, and they express 
relations. 



But, except, and save, in such a sentence as, * * All but or except or 
save him were lost," are usually classed with prepositions. 

The phrases aboard of, according to, along with, as to, because of (by 
cause of), from among, from between, from under, etc., instead of (in 
stead of), out of, over against, and roundabout may be called compound 
prepositions. But from in such compounds as, "He crawled from 
under the ruins," really introduces a phrase, the principal term of 
which is the phrase that follows from\ 



List of Connectives. 293 



LIST OF CONNECTIVES. 



Remark. — Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper.; 
some are relative pronouns ; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, 
which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of 
the conjunction, take its office upon themselves, and connect the 
clauses. 

CO-ORDINATE CONNECTIVES. 

Copulative, — And, both . . . and, as well as,* are conjunctions 
proper. Accordingly, also, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, 
likewise, moreover, now, so, then, and therefore are conjunctive adverbs. 

Adversative.— But and whereas are conjunctions proper. How- 
ever, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, 
still, and yet are conjunctive adverbs. 

Alternative. — Neither, nor, or, either . . . or, and neither . . . 
nor are conjunctions proper. Else and otherwise are conjunctive 
adverbs. 

SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES. 

Connectives of Adjective Clauses. 

That, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, and whoever are rela- 
tive pronouns. When, where, whereby, wherein, and why are conjunc- 
tive adverbs. 

Connectives of Adverb Clauses. 

Time. — After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, while, 
and whilst are conjunctive adverbs. 

Place. — Whence, where, and wherever are conjunctive adverbs. 

* The as well asm " He, as well as I, went " ; and not that in "He is as well as 
I am." 



294 Supplementary and Review. 



Degree. — As, than, that, and the are conjunctive adverbs, correlative 
with adjectives or adverbs. 

Manner. — As is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an 
adjective or an adverb. 

Real Cause, — As, because, for, since, and whereas are conjunctions 
proper. 

Reason. — Because, for, and since are conjunctions proper. 
Purpose. — In order that, lest (= that not), that, and so that are con- 
junctions proper. 

Condition. — Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, 
provided that, and unless are conjunctions proper. 

Concession. — Although, if (= even if), notwithstanding, though, and 
whether are conjunctions proper. However is a conjunctive adverb. 
Whatever, whichever, and whoever are relative pronouns used indefi- 
nitely. 

Connectives of Noun Clauses. 

If, lest, that, and whether are conjunctions proper. What, which, 
and who are pronouns introducing questions ; how, when, whence, 
where, and why are conjunctive adverbs. 



DECLENSION. 

DEFINITION,— Declension is the arrangement of the cases of 
nouns and pronouns in the two numbers. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

LADY. BOY. MAN. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Nom. lady, ]adies, boy, boys, man, men, 

Pos. lady's, ladies', boy's, boys', man's, men's, 

Obj. lady ; ladies. boy ; boys. man ; men. 



Declension. 



295 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 
Personal Pronouns. 



FIRST PERSON. 


SECOND PERSON — 


SECOND 


PERSON — 




common 


- form. 


old 


form. 


Singular. Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular 


. Plural. 


JSfom. I, we 


you, 


you, 


thou, 


ye or you 


Pos. my or our or 


your or 


your or 


thy or 


your or 


mine,* ours, 


yours, 


yours, 


thine, 


yours, 


Obj. me ; us. 


you ; 


you. 


thee; 


you. 


THIRD PERSON — Mas. 


third person — Fern. 


THIRD PERSON — Neut. 


Singular. Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular 


. Plural. 


Nom. he, they, 


she, 


they, 


it, 


they, 


their or 
Pos. his, ,, . 

theirs, 


her or 
hers, 


their or 
theirs, 


its, 


their or 
theirs, 


Obj. him ; them. 


her ; 


them. 


it; 


them. 



* The forms mine, ours, yours, thine, hers, and theirs are used only when the name 
of the thing possessed is omitted ; as, "Yours is old, mine is new " = " Tour book is 
old, 11 etc. Mine and thine were formerly used before words beginning Math a vowel 
sound ; as, thine enemy, mine honor. 

The expression a friend of mine presents a peculiar construction. The explanation 
generally given is, that of is partitive, and the expression equivalent to one friend of 
my friends. And it is claimed that this construction can be used only when more 
than one thing is possessed. Bat such expressions as this heart of mine, that temper 
of yours are good, idiomatic English. This sweet wee wife of mine.— Burns. This 
naughty world of ours.— Byron. This moral life ofmine.—Sher. Knowles. Dim are 
those heads of theirs.— Carlyle. Some suggest that the word possessing or owning is 
understood after these possessive* ; as, this temper of yours (your possessing) ; 
others say that of simply marks identity ; as in city of New York, making the expres- 
sion = this temper, your temper. 



296 Supplementary and Review. 



Compound Personal Pronouns. 

^Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Nom. and JYom. and Norn, and Nom. and Nom. and Nom.and 

Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj. 



^myself or ) thyself or } himself ; 

, > } ourselves. ^^„ wart i# \ yourselves. ^^^^ m ( them- 



ourself ; ) yourself ; ) herself ; 

., ,« \ selves, 
itself ; 

Remark. — The possessive of these pronouns is wanting. 

Our self and we are used by rulers, editors, and others, instead of sin- 
gular pronouns, to hide their individuality, and give authority to what 
they say. 

Relative Pronouns. 

Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Flu: 
Nom. who, which, that, what, 

Pos. whose, whose, , , 

Obj. whom. which. that. what. 

Remark. — Instead of using whose as the possessive of which, some 
prefer the phrase of which. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

The interrogative pronouns who, which, and what are de- 
clined like the relatives who, which, and what. 

Compound Relative Pronouns. 

Singular and Plural. Singular and Plural. 

Nom. whoever, whosoever, 

Pos. whosever, whosesoever, 

Obj. whomever. whomsoever. 

Whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever do not 
change their form. 



List of Irregula* Verbs. 



29? 



Adjective Pronouns. 

This and that with their plurals, these and those, have no 
possessive form, and are alike in the nominative and the 
objective. One and other are declined like nouns ; and 
another, declined like other in the singular, has no plural. 
Each, either, and neither are always singular ; * loth is al- 
ways plural ; and all, any, former, latter, none, same, some, 
and such are either singular or plural. 

Descriptive adjectives used as nouns are plural, and are 
not declined. Such expressions as "the wretched' s only 
plea" and "the wicked's den" are exceptional. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Remark. — The forms below in Italics are regular ; and those in 
smaller type are obsolete. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Awake, 


awoke, 
awaked, 


awaked. 


Bet, 


bet, 
betted, 


bet. 
betted: 


Be or am, 


was, 


been. 


Bid, 


bade, bid, 


bidden, bid. 


Bear, 


bore, 


born, 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


{bring forth) 


bare, 


borne. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bear, 


bore, 


borne. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. • 


{carry) 


bare, 






blent, 


blent. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten. 


Blend, 


blended, 


blended. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Bless, 


blest, 


blest. 


Bend, 


bent, 


bent. 


blessed, 


blessed. 


bended, 


bended. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Bereave, 


bereft, 


bereft. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


bereaved, 


bereaved. 




brake, 





* Grammarians have taught that each other, either, and neither should always refer 
to two things, and one another to more than two ; but good writers do not regard this 
restriction. 

13* 



298 



Supplementary and Review. 



Present. 


Past 


Past Par. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Par* 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Dress, 


drest, 


drest. 


Bring, . 


brought, 


brought. 


dressed, 


dressed. 


Build, 


built, 


built. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 


builded, 


builded. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Burn, 


burnt, 


burnt. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, 


dwelt. 


burned. 


burned. 


dwelled, 


dwelled. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eaten. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


(Be) Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Can, 


could, 


. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. ) 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Catch, 


caught, 


caught. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, 
chid. 


Find, 
Flee, 


found, 
fled, 


found, 
fled. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Cleave, 


cleaved, 


cleaved. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


{adhere) 
Cleave, 


clave, 
clove, 


cloven, 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


{split) 


cleft, 


cleft. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne. 




clave, 




Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


(For) Get, 


got, 


got, 


Clothe, 


clad, 
clothed, 


clad. 
clothed. 


Gild, 


gilt, 


gotten.* 
gilt. 


(Be) Come 


, came, 


come. 


gilded, 


gilded. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Gird, 


girt, 


girt. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


girded, 


girded. 


Crow, 


crew, 
crowed, 


crowed. 


(For) Give 
Go, 


, gave, 
went, 


given, 
gone. 


Cut, 
Dare, 


cut, 
durst, 


cut. 
dared. 


(En)Grave 


, graved, 


graved. 
graven. 


{venture) 


dared, 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Big, 


dug, 
digged, 


dug. 
digged. 


Hang, 


hung, 
hanged, 


hung. 
hanged, f 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Dream, 


dreamt, 


dreamt. 


Heave, 


hove, 


hove4 


dreamed, 


dreamed. 


heaved, 


heaved. 



* Gotten is obsolescent except in forgotten, i Hang, to execute by hanging, is regular; 
% Hove is used in sea language. 



List of Irregular Verbs. 



299 



Present, 


Past 


Past Par. 


Present. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewed. 
hewn. 


Ought, 
Pay, 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid. 


Pen, 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


(enclose) 


(Be) Hold 


held, 


held, 
holden. 


Put, 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Quit, 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


__. 


Kneel, 


knelt, 
kneeled, 


knelt. 
kneeled. 


Rap, 


Knit, 


knit, 


knit. 


Read, 


knitted, 


knitted. 


Rend, 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Rid, 


Lade, 


laded, 


laded. 


Ride, 


{load) 




laden. 




Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Ring, 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


(A)Rise, 


Lean, 


leant, 
leaned. 


leant. 
leaned. 


Rive, 


Leap, 


leapt, 
leaped, 


leapt. 
leaped. 


Run, 


Learn, 


learnt, 


learnt. 


Saw, 


learned, 


learned. 


Say, 
See 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Seek, 


Let, 


let, 


let. 




Lie, 


lay, 


lain. 


Seethe, 


(recline) 
Light, 


lit, 
lighted, 


lit.* 
lighted. 


Sell, 
Send, 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


(Be)Set, 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Shake, 


May, 


might, 


. 


Shall, 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Shape, 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Shave, 


Mow, 


mowed. 


mowed. 








mown. 




Must, 







Shear, 



Past. 


Past Par, 


paid, 


paid. 


pent, 
penned, 


pent. 
penned. 


put, 


put. 


quit, 
quitted, 


quit. 
quitted. 


quoth, 


. 


rapt, 
rapped, 


rapt. 
rapped. 


read, 


read. 


rent, 


rent. 


rid, 


rid. 


rode, 


ridden. 


rang 
{or rung), 


rung. 


rose, 


risen. 


rived, 


riven. 
rived. 


ran, 


run. 


sawed, 


sawed. 
sawn. 


said, 


said. 


saw, 


seen. 


sought, 


sought. 


seethed, 


seethed. 


sod, 


sodden. 


sold, 


sold. 


sent, 


sent. 


set, 


set. 


shook, 


shaken. 


should, 


— — 


shaped, 


shaped. 
shapen. 


shaved, 


shaved. 




shaven. 


sheared, 
shore, 


sheared. 
shorn. 



* Lighted is preferred to lit. 



300 



Supplementary and Review. 



Present. 
Shed, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 
Shoot, 

Show, 

Shred, 

Shrink, 

Shut, 

Sing, 

Sink, 

Sit, 
Slay, 

Sleep, 

Slide, 
Sling, 

Slink, 
Slit, 

Smell, 
Smite, 

Sow, 
Speak, 

Speed, 
Spell, 
Spend, 
Spill, 



Past 
shed, 
shone, 
shined, 

shod, 
shot, 

showed, 

shred, 
shrank 
(or shrunk) 
shut, 
sang 

(or sung), 
sanl£ 
(or sunk), 

sat, 

slew, 

slept, 

slid, 

slung, 

slang, 

slunk, 

slit, 

shitted, 

smelt, 

smelted, 

smote, 



sowed, 

spoke, 

spake, 

sped, 

spelt, 

spelled, 

spent, 

spilt, 

spilled, 



Past Par. 
shed, 
shone. 
shined. 

shod, 
shot, 
shown. 
showed. 

shred, 
shrunk, 
, shrunken, 
shut. 

sung. 

sunk, 
sunken. 

sat. 

slain. 

slept. 

slidden, 

slid. 

slung. 

slunk. 

slit. 

slitted. 

smelt. 

smelted. 

smitten, 

smit. 

sown. 

sowed. 

spoken. 

sped. 

spelt. 

spelled. 

spent. 

spilt. 

spilled. 



Present. Past. 



bpm, 

Spit, 

Split, 

Spoil, 

Spread, 


spun, 
span, 

spit, 
spat, 

split, 
spoilt, 
spoiled, 
spread, 


Spring, 
Stand, 


sprang 
(or sprung), 
stood, 


Stave, 


stove, 
staved, 


Stay, 
Steal, 


staid, 

stayed, 

stole, 


Stick, 


stuck, 


Sting, 
Stink, 


stung, 

stunk, 
stank, 


Strew, 


strewed, 


Stride, 


strode, 


Strike, 


struck, 


String, 
Strive, 


strung, 
strove, 


Strow, 


strowed, 


Swear, 


swore, 
sware, 


Sweat, 


sweat, 
sweated, 


Sweep, 


swept, 


Swell, 


swelled, 


Swim, 


swam 

(nr swutnV 



Past Par. 

spun. 

spit, 
spitten. 

split. 

spoilt. 



spread, 
sprung. 

stood. 

stove. 
staved. 

staid. 

stayed. 

stolen. 

stuck. 

stung. 

stunk. 

strewn. 

strewed. 

stridden. 

struck, 

stricken. 

strung. 

striven. 

strown. 

strowed. 



sweat. 
sweated. 

swept. 

swelled. 

swollen. 



Swing, swung, swung. 
Take, took, taken. 



Conjugation. 



301 



Present, 
Teach, 

Tear, 

Tell, 
Think, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 
Thrust, 

Tread, 

Wake, 

Wax, 



Past. 
taught, 

tore, 
tare, 

told, 

thought, 

throve, 
thrived, 
threw, 
thrust, 

trod, 

waked, 
woke, 

waxed. 



Past Par. 

taught. 

torn. 

told. 

thought. 

thriven. 

thrived. 

thrown. 

thrust. 

trodden, 

trod. 

waked. 

waxen. 
waxed. 



Present. 
Wear, 
Weave, 
Weep, 

Wet, 

Will, 
Win, 
Wind, 

Work, 

(To)Wit, 
wot, 

Wring, 

Write, 



Past. 


Past Par 


wore, 


worn. 


wove, 


woven. 


wept, 


wept. 


wet, 

wetted, 


wet. 
wetted. 


would, 


• 


won, 


won. 


wound, 


wound. 


wrought, 
worked, 


wrought, 
worked. 



wist, , 

wrung, wrung, 
wrote, written, 



CONJUGATION-SIMPLEST FORM. 

Remark. — English verbs have few inflections compared with those of 
other languages. Some irregular verbs have seven forms — see, saw, 
seeing 1 , seen, sees, seest, sawest ; regular verbs have six — walk, 
walked, walking, walks, walkest, walkedst. As a substitute 
for other inflections we prefix auxiliary verbs, and make what are 
called compound, or periphrastic, forms. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SEE. 





Pres. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


incipa 


Parts. — See, 


saw, 


seen* 






Indicative Mode. 






Present Tense. 






SingtUar. 




Plural. 


t 


I see, 




1. "We see, 


2. 


( You see or 

( Thou seest, 




2. You see, 


3. 


He sees ; 




& They see. 



QQ2 Supplementary and Review. 



Emphatic Form. — I do see, You do see or Thou dost see, He doe& 
see ; We do see, You do see, They do see. 

Past Tense. 

1. I saw, 1. We saw, 

. { You saw or 

2. 1 2. You saw, 
( Thou sawest, 

3. He saw ; 3. They savv. 

Emphatic Form. — I did see, You did see or Thou cfo'd^ see, He did 
see; We did see, You efo'd see, They did see. 







Future Tense. 






1. 


I shall see, 




1. 


We shall see, 


2. 


j You will see or 
I Thou wilt see, 




2. 


You will see, 


3. 


He will see ; 




3. 


They will see, 



Present Perfect Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I have seen, 1, We have seen, 

_, ( You have seen or 

2. 1 ml , , 2. You have seen, 
t Thou hast seen, 

3. He has seen ; 3. They have seen. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
1, I had seen, 1. We had seen, 

A ( You had seen or , " ' ' 

*• i mi i t 2. 2. You had seen, 

( Thou hadst seen, 

8. He had seen ; 3. They had seen. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, 

A ( You will have seen or " ,,. 

*• 1 mi .u i 2. You will have seen, 

< Thou wilt have seen, 

3. He will have seen ; 3. They will have seen 



Conjugation. 



303 



Potential Mode. 



Present Tense. 



Singular. Plural. 

I may see, 1. We may see, 

You may see or 
Thou mayst see, 
He may see ; 3. They may see. 



2. You may see, 



Past Tense. 

1. I might see, 1. We might see, 

j You might see or 
«. 1 mi . , . 2. You might see, 

t Thou mightst see, & 

8. He might see ; 3. They might see. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen, 

- j Ypu may have seen or 

a* ) 2. You may have seen, 

< Thou mayst have seen, ' 

3. He may have seen ; 3. They may have seen. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might have seen, 1. We might 'have seen, 

_ 5 You might have seen or . ■ 

2. 1 mi . , , , . 2. You might have seen, 

< Thou mightst have seen, & 

3. He might have seen; 3. They might have seen. 

Remark. — For auxiliaries that may take the place of may and vrnght^ 
ae p. 215. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. 
2. If thou see, 3. If he see. 



304 Supplementary and Review. 



Imperative Mode. 



Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. See (you or thou); 2. See (you or ye). 

Emphatic Form. — Do you or thou see ; do you or ye see. 





Infinitives. 


Present Tense. 


Present Perfect Tense. 


To see. 


To have seen. 




Participles. 


Present. 


Past. Past Perfect 


Seeing, 


Seen, Having seen. 



GENERAL SCHEME FOR CONJUGATING A VERB. 
Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. (I) Pre*. 1. (We) Pre*. 

.(You) '-JZsJ, 2 . (You) P res. 

1 (Thou) Pres. esf * v - } ~> 

3. (He) Pres. 5; » 3. (They) Pres. # 

Past Tense. 

1. (I) Past 1. (We) Past 

2. ^, 0U) , -£h' 2. (You) 



PGWtf 



((Thou) *w< st{orest) 
3. (He) gtog . 3 - CThey) Part 



* In the indicative, present, second, singular, old style, st is sometimes added in. 
stead of est / and in the third person* common style, es is added when s will not 
unite. In the third person, old style, eth is added. 



Conjugation. 395 



Future Tense. 
1. (I) shall Pres. £ (We) shall Pres. 

n { (You) will Pres. 

2 - \ (Thou) wil-t Z^Z\ 2 - (Y0n)mU ~^-> 

3. (lie) will Pres. \ 3. (They) will Pres. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singula?*. Plural. 

1. (I) have Past Par. 1. (We) have Past Par. 

rt ( (You) toe i 3 ^ Par. 

2- rm. u x77 D ~' 3 - (You) toe fto< -Par. 
( (Thou)^a-^^?_P«f_. x y >■ 

3. (He) has Past Par! . 3. (They) have Past Par. _ 

Past Perfect Tense. 
1. (1) had Past Par. ^ 1. (We) had Past Par. ^ 

_ { (You) had Past Par. 

/ (Thou) had-st Past Par. ^ K > > 

3. (He) had Past Par! ; 3. (They) had Past Par. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. (I) shall have Past Par. ^ 1. (We) shall have Past Par. 

( (You) will have Past Par. ~ \ 

2. i mi \ .7., D , D > 2. (You) will have Past Par. 
I (Thou) twZ-£ toe Past_Par.^ v y f 

3. (He) twZZ toe Past Par!. 3. (They) wi7Z toe i*w< Jlar. 

Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. (I) may Pres. 1. (We) may Pra. 

j W^™* # -f^ ! 2. (You) may i*». ' 
( (Thou) may-st Pres. v 7 * -■• 

3. (He) may Pres. . 3. (They) may Pres. ^ 

Past Tense. 

1. (I) might Pres. 1. (We) might Pres. 

. 1 (You) m^/i^ ifre*. o /at x • 7 ^ t> 

2. ^; m , \ ... , — ' 2. (You) might Pres. 

I (Thou) might-st Pres. v 7 * > 

3. (He) might Pres. . 3. (They) might Pres. 



306 Supplementary and Review. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

1. (I) may have Past_Par\^ i, (We) may have Pa st Par. 
ft ( (You) may have Past Par. 

2. ■{ /rrn x , 7 n * -n ' 2. (you) may have Past Par. 

( (Thou) may-st have Past Par. v } J , 

3. (He) may have Past Par. . 3. (They) mav have Past Par. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. (I) might have Past Par. l. (We) might have Past Par . 

( (You) might have Past Par. 

2 « ^ mi. v - -lj. xv D y „ — ' 2. (Y ou) might have Past Par. 
\ (Thou) might-st have Past Par. v ' * — » 

3. (He) might have Past Par. . 3. (They) might have Past Par. 



Subjunctive Mode. 

Tresent Tense. 

Singular. 
2. (If thou) Pres. 3. (If he)* Pres. 



Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Pres. (you or thou) ; 2. Pres. (you or ye). 

* The subjunctive as a form of the verb is fading out of the language. The only- 
distinctive forms remaining (except for the verb be) are the second and the third per- 
son singular of the present, and even these are giving way to the indicative. Such 
forms as "If he have loved, 11 etc., are exceptional. It is true that other forms ; as, 
"Tjf he had known" " Had he been" " Should he fall" may be used in a true sub- 
junctive sense, to assert what is a mere conception of the mind, i. e., what is merely 
thought of. without regard to its being or becoming a fact; but in these cases it is not 
the form of the v&rb, but the connective or something in the construction of the sen- 
tence that determines the manner of assertion. In parsing, the verbs in such con- 
struction may be treated as indicative or potential, with a subjunctive meaning. 

The offices of the different mode and tense forms are constantly interchanging ; a 
classification based strictly on meaning would be very difficult, and would confuse 
the learner. 



Conjugation. 30f 



Infinitives. 

Present Tense. Present Perfect Tense. 

* (To) Pres. ^ (To) have Pa*t Par. 



Present. 
Pres. 



%ng, 



Participles. 

Past. 
Past Par. 

9 


Past Perfect. 
Having Past Par. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. 

Remark. — The line at the right of the following forms has nothing to 
do with the conjugation of be. When be is used as an auxiliary, this 
Jine represents the present participle of the progressive form, or the 
past participle of the passive form. 

* To, as indicated by the ( ), is not treated as a part of the verb. Writers on lan- 
guage are generally agreed that when to introduces an infinitive phrase used as an 
adjective or an adverb, it performs its proper function as a preposition, meaning 
toward, for, etc. ; as, " I am inclined to believe," " I came to hear." When the infini- 
tive phrase is used as a noun, the to expresses no relation ; it seems merely to intro- 
duce the phrase. When a word loses its proper function without taking on the func- 
tion of some other part of speech, we do not see why it should change its name. In 
the expressions, " For me to do this would be wrong," " Over the fence is out of 
danger," few grammarians would hesitate to call/or and over prepositions, although 
they have no antecedent term of relation. 

We cannot see that to is a part of the verb, for it in no way affects the meaning, as 
does an auxiliary, or as does the to in " He was spoken to." Those who call it a part 
of the verb confuse the learner by speaking of it as the " preposition to " (which, as 
they have said, is not a preposition) " placed before the in£nitive," i.e., placed before 
that of which it forms a part— placed before itself. 

In the Anglo-Saxon, to was used with the infinitive only in the dative case, where 
It had its proper function as a preposition ; as, nominative, etan (to eat) ; dative, to 
etanne; accusative, etan. When the dative ending ne was dropped, making the three 
forms alike, the to came to be used before the nominative and the accusative, but 
without expressing relation. 



308 



Supplementary and Review, 



1. 

i 

3. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

1. 
2. 



Singular. 

(I) am 

i (You) are — 
/ (Thou) art — 

(He) is 



Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. (We) are - 

2. (You) are • 



(I) was 

( (You) were - 
( (Thou) wast ■ 

(He) was 



3. (They) are- 

Fast Tense. 

1. (We) were - 



2. (You) were - 

3. (They) were • 



(I) shall be 

c (You) will be — 
1 (Thou) wilt be 

(He) will be — 



Future Tense. 

1. (We) shall be • 



2. (You) will be - 

3. (They) will be ■ 



(I) have been 

j (You) have been - 
( (Thou) hast been ■ 

(He) has been 



(T) had been 

c (You) had been — 
( (Thou) hadst been 

(He) had been 



Present Perfect Tense. 

1. (We) have been — 

— or 

2. (You) have been — 

; 3. (They) have been - 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. (We) had been — 

- or 

2. (You) had been — 

f 3. (They) had been - 



(I) shall have been 



Future Perfect Tense. 

, 1. (We) shall have been 

j (You) will have been or 

( (Thou) wilt have been -, 

(He) will have been ; 



2. (You) will have been — 

3. (They) will have been ■ 



Conjugation. 



309 



Singular. 
1. (I) may be — 
( (You) may be ■ 



( (Thou) mayst be • 
3. (He) may be 



Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. 



Plural. 

1. (We) may be - 

2. (You) may be ■ 



3. (They) may be ■ 



1. (I) might be — 

j (You) might be — 
( (Thou) mightst be 

3. (He) might be 



1. (I) may have been 

r (You) may have been — 
( (Thou) mayst have been ■ 

3. (He) may have been 



Past Tense. 

1. (We) might be 

- or 

2. (You) might be 

; 3. (They) might be 

Present Perfect Tense. 
, 1. (We) may have been - 



(I) might have been — 
( (You) might have been - 



2. (You) may have been — 
— ; 3. (They) may have been - 

Past Perfect Tense. 
:, 1, (We) might have been 



\ (Thou) mightst have been - 
3. (He) might have been — 



2. (You) might have been — 

3. (They) might have been - 



Singular. 
1. (If I) be , 

( (If you) be 

I (If thou) be — 
3. (If he) be 



Subjunctive Mode. 

Present Tense. 



Plural. 
1. (If we) be 



■ or 



2. (If you) be - 

3. (If they) be 



310 



Supplementary and Review. 







Past Tense. 




1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 

Hi 1\ TTPTT 








( (If thou) wert , 








Imperative Mode. 






Present Tense. 


Singular. 

Re (~\Tfx\~\ nt* I'll on \ 




Plural. 
-; 2. Be (you or ye) — •« 


•i, JJtJ ^JUU C// LI1U.LIJ — 








Infinitives. 


Present Tense. 
(To) be . 




Present Perfect Tense. 
fT^n\ novo V»ppn 








Participles. 


Present. 




Past. Past Perfect. 
Been, Having been — -. 


Being , 



CONJUGATION-PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS 

A verb is conjugated in the progressive form by joining 
its present participle to the different forms of the verb be. 

Remark. — The past participle of the progressive form is wanting. 

A transitive verb is conjugated in the passive voice by 
joining its past participle to the different forms of the 
verb be. 

Remark. — The form of the past participle in the passive is the same 
as in the simple active. 



Conjugation. 31J 



Remark. — The progressive form denotes a continuance of the action 
or being ; as, " The birds are singing ." 

Verbs that in their simple form denote continuance — such as love, 
respect, know — should not be conjugated in the progressive form. We 
say, " I love the child " — not " I am loving the child." 

Remark. — The progressive form is sometimes used with a passive 
meaning ; as, " The house is building." In such cases the word in ing 
was once a verbal noun preceded by the preposition a, a contraction 
from on or in; as, ' ' While the ark was a preparing;" " While the 
flesh was in seething." In modern language the preposition is dropped, 
and the word in ing is treated adjectively. 

An other ^ass^e progressive form, consisting of the verb be completed 
by the present passive participle, has grown into our language — "The 
house is being built" Although it has been condemned by some of 
our linguists as awkward and otherwise objectionable, yet it is in good 
use, especially in England. Such a form seems to be needed when the 
simpler form would be ambiguous, i. e., when its subject might be 
taken to name either the actor or the receiver ; as, "The child is whip* 
pi?ig ;" " The prisoner is trying. " 

INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORMS. 

A yerb may be conjugated interrogatively in the indica- 
tive and potential modes by placing the subject after the 
first auxiliary ; as, "Does he sing? " 

A verb may be conjugated negatively by placing not after 
the first auxiliary ; as, "He does not sing:' Not is placed 
before the infinitive phrase and the participle ; as, not to 
sing, not singing. 

A question loith negation is expressed in the indicative 
and potential modes by placing the subject and not after the 
first auxiliary ; as, "Does he not sing?" 



312 Supplementary and Review. 



Remark. — Formerly, it was common to use the simple form of the 
present and past tenses interrogatively and negatively thus: "Loves 
foe ?" " I know not." Such forms are still common in poetry, but in 
prose they are now scarcely used. We say, "Does he love f " " I do 
not know" The verbs be and have are exceptions, as they do' not 
regularly take the auxiliary do. We say, " Have you another ? " " Is 
it right ? " 



COMPOUND VERB-FORMS-ANALYSIS. 

The compound, or periphrastic, forms of the verb may each 
be resolved into an asserting word, and a participle or an infini- 
tive used as a complement. 

If we look at the original meaning of the forms u Ido write," " I 
shall write," " I will write," we shall find that the so-called aux- 
iliary is the real verb, and that write is an infinitive used as object 
complement. "I do write" = "I do (or perform the action) (to) 
tvrite." " I shall write " == " I owe (to) write." " I will write " 
=± "I determine (to) write." 

May write, can write, must write, might write, could write, 
would write, and should write may each be resolved into an assert- 
ing word in the indicative mode and an infinitive complement. 

The forms is writing", was written, etc. consist each of an 
asserting word (the verb be), and a participle used as attribute com- 
plement. 

The forms have written, had written are so far removed from 
their original meaning that their analysis cannot be made to correspond 
with their history. They originated from such expressions as " I have 
a letter written," in which have (= possess) is a transitive verb, taking 
letter for its object complement, and written is a passive participle 
modifying letter. The idea of possession has faded out of have, and 
the participle, having lost its passive meaning, has become a comple- 
ment of have. The use of this form has been extended to intransitive 



Compound Verb- Forms— Analysis. 313 



yerbs—" Spring has come," "Birds have flown" etc. being now 
regularly used instead of " Spring is come" "Birds are flown." Is 
«come, are flown, etc. must not be mistaken for transitive verbs in the 
passive voice. 

Compounds of more than two words may be analyzed thus : May 
have been written is composed of the compound auxiliary may 
have been and the participle complement written ; may have been 
is composed of the compound auxiliary may have and the participle 
■complement been ; and may have is composed of the auxiliary may 
.and the infinitive complement have. May is the asserting word — the 
first auxiliary is always the asserting word. 

Tense Forms-Meaning. 
The Present Tense is used to express (1) what is actually 
present, (2) what is true at all times, (3) what frequently 
or habitually takes place, (4) what is to take place in the 
future, and (5) it is used in describing past or future events 
.as if occurring at the time of the speaking. 

Examples. — I hear a voice (action as present). The sun gives light 
{true at all times). He writes for the newspapers (habitual), Phillips 
speaks in Boston to-morrow night (future). He mounts the scaffold ; 
the executioners approach to bind him ; he struggles, resists, etc. (past 
•events pictured to the imagination as present). The clans of Culloden 
are scattered in fight ; they rally, they bleed, etc. (future events now 
seen in vision). 

The Past Tense may express (1) simply past action or 
being, (2) a past habit or custom, (3) a future event, and (4) 
it may refer to present time. 

Examples. — The birds sang (simply past action). He wrote for the 
newspapers (past habit). If I should go, you would miss me (future 
events). If he were here, he would enjoy this (refers to present time). 
14 



314 Supplementary and Review. 



The Future Tense may express (1) simply future action 
or being, (2) a habit or custom as future or as indefinite 
m time. 

Examples. — I shall write soon (simply future action). He will sit 
there by the hour (indefinite in time). 

The Present Perfect Tense expresses (1) action or being 
as completed in present time (i.e., a period of time — an hour, 
a year, an age — of which the present forms a part), and (2) 
action or being to be completed in a future period. 

Examples. — Homer has written poems (the period of time affected by 
this completed action embraces the present). The cock shall not crow 
till thou hast deriied me thrice (action completed in a future period). 

The Past Perfect Tense expresses (1) action or being as 
completed at some specified past time, and (2) in a condi- 
tional or hypothetical clause it may express past time. 

Examples. — I had seen him when I met you (action completed at a 
specified past time). If I had had time, I should have written (I had 
not time — I did not write). 

The Future Perfect Tense expresses an action as com- 
pleted at some specified future time. 

Example. — I shall have seen him by to-morrow noon. 

Additional Examples. 

1. I go to the city to-morrow. 2. The village master taught his little 
school. 3. Plato reasons well. 4. A triangle has three sides. 5. To- 
morrow is the day appointed. 6. Moses has told many important facts. 
7. The ship sails next week. 8. She sings well. 9. Cicero has written 
orations. 10. He would sit for hours and watch the smoke curl from 
his pipe. 11. You may hear when the next mail arrives. 12. Had I 
known this before, I could have saved you much trouble. 13. He will 



Orthography. 



315 



occasionally lose his temper. 14. At the end of this week I shall have 
been in school four years. 15. If I were you, I would try that. 16. He 
will become discouraged before he has thoroughly tried it. 17. She 
starts, she moves, she seems to feel the thrill of life along her keel. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 
Vowels and Consonants. 
DEFINITION.— A Vowel is a letter that stands for a free, open 
sound of the voice. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u. 

W is a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a 
vowel sound ; as, new, now ; and y is a vowel when it has the sound of i ; 
as, by, duty, boy. W and y are consonants at the beginning of a word 
or a syllable ; as, wet, yet. 

DEFINITION.— A Consonant is a letter that stands for a sound 
made by the obstructed voice or the obstructed breath.* 

The consonants are the letters of the alphabet not named above as 

vowels. 

Sounds of the Vowels. 

Diacritical marks used in Webster's Dictionary. 



1. a, long, in hate. 

2. a, short, in hat. 

3. a, Italian, in far. 

4. a, broad, in all. 

5. a, intermediate, in ask. 

6. a, long before r, in care. 



1. e, long, in me. 

2, e, short, in met. 

1. I, long, in pine. 

2. i, short, in pin. 



1. 5, long, in note. 

2. b, short, in not. 

3. o (like long oo) in do. 

1 . u, long, in tube. 

2. u, short, in tub. 

3. u (like short oo) in pulL 

4. u (before r) in fur. 

oi and oy (unmarked = ai) in oil, 

toy. 
ou and ow (unmarked = aoo) in 

out, now. 



* H, which represents a mere forcible breathing, is an exception. 



316 



Supplementary and Review. 



One letter used for another. 



6 = a, as in form. 

o (unmarked) = u, as in worm. 

6b = p, as in moon. 

06 = u, as in wool. 

u = p, as in rude. 

y = I, as in fly. 

y == i, as in myth. 



a = 8, as in what. 

e = a, as in where, h&ir. 

e = a, as in eight. 

e = u (nearly), as in her. 

I = e, as in police. 

I = u (nearly), as in sir. 

6 = u, as in done. 

o = u, as in wolf. 

Remarks. — a is between cl and a. a represents the first, or "radi- 
cal," part of a, touched lightly, without the "vanish," or e sound, a 
is nearly equivalent to e prolonged before r. 

u is between & and e. Some careful speakers discriminate between 4 
(= o in worm) and e (= t), making the former a modification of u and 
the latter a modification of #. 

In the ''International Dictionary" (the latest "Webster"), a, e, 
t, o, u, represent the long sounds as modified in syllables without 
accent; e.g., senate, event, idea, obey, unite. The " International " 
often respells instead of using diacritical marks. 

When one vowel of a diphthong is marked, the other is silent. 

Diacritical marks used in Worcester's Dictionary. 



a in hate. 
a in hat. 
a in far. 
k in all. 
a in ask. 
a in care. 

e in me. 
e in met. 

i in pine. 
I in pin. 



6 in note. 
6 in not. 
6 in do. 

u. in tube, 
u in tub. 
u in pull, 
u in fur. 

6i, 6y in oil, toy. 
oii, 6w in out, now. 



Orthography. 



31? 



& in where, 
e in her. 
i in police, 
i in sir. 
6 in done. 



6 in form. 

66 in moon. 
u in rude. 
y in fly. 
y in myth. 



Sounds of the Consonants. 

Explanation. — The two classes of consonants are arranged below in 
separate columns. Those in "1" are called vocal consonants (voice 
consonants), and those in "2 " are called aspirates (breath consonants). 

The letters with dots between them form pairs. Give the sound of 
the first letter of any pair, and you will find that, as the voice stops, 
the vanishing sound will be the sound of the other letter. The tongue, 
teeth, lips, and palate are in the same position for both, the only differ- 
ence being that in one there is voice, and in the other only a whisper. 



1. 

Vocal Consonants. 

b... . 


2. 
Aspirates. 

P 

t 

k 

h 

ch 


1. 

Vocal Consonants. 

r 


2. 
Aspirates. 


d 

g- •• 


th (in thine). 
v 

w 


(tli in thin) 

f 


j 


J 

e (in zone). . . 
z (in azure). . 




1 

m 




s 

sh 



C, q, and x are not found in the columns above. C = k or s; q - k ;, 

x = ks or g-z. 

Diacritical marks — Webster. 

c, soft (= s), in cent. 



-c, hard (= k), in -call. 
ch (unmarked) in child. 
<jh, soft (= sh), in cphaise. 
-eh, hard (= k), in -chorus, 
g, hard, in get. 
g, soft (= j), in gem. 



s, sharp (unmarked), in same. 

s, soft (= z), in ha§. 

th, sharp (unmarked), in thin. 

4hj soft or vocal, in-this. 

n (— ng) in ink. 

■%. (= gz) in e^ist. 



318 Supplementary and Review. 



Diacritical marks — Worcester. 



9 in cent. 
jO, 5 (or $) in call, 
ch (unmarked) in child. 
9h in chaise. 

jCH, ch (or ch) in chorus 
&, £ in get, 



G, g in gem. 

s in has. 

th (unmarked) in thin. 

TH th in this. 

x in exist. 



I 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

RULE I,— Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a 
vowel ; as, fine, finer ; love, loving. 

Exceptions. — Words ending in ce and ge retain e before able and 
ous to keep c and g soft ; as, peaceable, changeable, courageous. Words 
in oe and ee retain the e unless the suffix begins with e ; as, hoeing, 
seeing. 

RULE II. — Y after a consonant becomes i before a suffix not 
beginning with i $ as, witty, wittier ; dry, dried. 

Exception. — Y does not change before 9 s ; as, enemy's. 

RULE III.— In monosyllables and words accented on the last 
syllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles before a 
suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, hot, hotter ; begin, beginning. 

Exceptions. — The final consonant is not doubled when, in the deriv- 
ative, the accent is thrown from the last syllable of the primitive ; as, 
refer' , reference. But we have excel! , ex'cellent, excellence. X, k, 
and v are never doubled. 

Remark. — To the Rules above (and inferences from them) there are 
a few other exceptions ; as, dyeing (coloring), singeing, tingeing, mileage, 
awful, wholly, judgment, acknowledgment; slyly, dryness, piteous; 
gases, transferable, humbugged, crystallize, cancellation. 



Abbreviations. 



319 



ABBREVIATIONS. 

Remarks. — Few abbreviations are allowable in ordinary composition. 
They are very convenient in writing lists of articles, in scientific works, 
and wherever certain terms frequently occur. 

Titles prefixed to proper names are generally abbreviated, except in 
addressing an officer of high rank. Titles that immediately follow 
names are almost always abbreviated. 

* Names of women are not generally abbreviated except by using an 
initial for one of two Christian names. 

Abbreviations that shorten only by one letter are unnecessary; as, 
Jul. for " July," Jno. for " John," da. for "day," etc. 

1st, 2d, 3d, UK, etc. are not followed by the period. They are not 
treated as abbreviations. 



@, At. 

A. B. or B. A. (Artium Baccalau- 

reus), Bachelor of Arts. 
Acct., acct, or ft | c , Account. 
A. D. (Anno Domini), In the year 

of our Lord. 
Adjt., Adjutant. 

iEt. or aet. (cetatis), Of age, aged. 
Ala., Alabama. 
Alex., Alexander. 
A. M. or M. A. (Artium Jf agister), 

Master of Arts. 
A. M..(ante meridiem) , Before noon. 
Amt., Amount. 
And., Andrew. 
Anon., Anonymous, 
Ans., Answer. 
Anth., Anthony. 
Apr., April. 
Arch., Archibald. 



Ark., Arkansas. 

Arizona or Ariz., Arizona Terri* 

tory. 
Atty., Attorney. 
Atty.-Gen., Attorney-General. 
Aug., August ; Augustus. 
Av. or Ave., Avenue. 
Avoir., Avoirdupois. 
Bart., Baronet. 
bbl., Barrels. 
B. C, Before Christ. 
Benj., Benjamin. 
Brig. -Gen., Brigadier-GeneraL 

B. S., Bachelor of Science. 
bu., Bushels. 

$ or ct., Cents. 

Cal., California. 

Cap., Capital. Caps., Capitals. 

Capt., Captain. 

C. E., Civil Engineer. 



320 



Supplementary and Review. 



cf. {confer), Compare. 
Chas., Charles. 
Chron., Chronicles. 
Co., Company ; County 
c | , In care of. 

C. O. D., Collect 3\i delivery. 
Col., Colonel ; Colossians. 
Coll., College ; Collector. 
Conn., Connecticut. 

Colo, or Col., Colorado. 
Cr., Credit ; Creditor. 
cub. ft., Cubic feet. 
cub. in., Cubic inches. 
cwt., Hundred-weight. 
d., Days ; Pence. 
Danl. or Dan., Daniel. 

D. C, District of Columbia. 
D. C. Ij., Doctor of Civil Law. 
D.D. (Divinitatis Doctor), Doctor 

of Divinity. 
D.D.S.. Doctor of Dental Surgery. 



Dec, December. 


Fla., Florida. 


Del., Delaware. 


Fr., French ; France. 


Deut., Deuteronomy. 


Fran., Francis. 


D. G. (Dei gratia), By the graoe of 


Fred., Frederic. 


God. 


Fri., Friday. 


Dist.-Atty., District- Attorney. 


ft., Feet. 


D. M., Doctor of Music. 


Ft., Fort, 


do. (ditto), The same. 


fur., Furlong. 


doz., Dozen. 


Ga., Georgia. 


Dr., Doctor ; Debtor. 


Gal., Galatians. 


D. V. (Deo volente), God willing. 


gal., Gallons. 


E., East. 


Gen., General ; Genesis 


Eben., Ebenezer. 


1 Geo., George. 



Eccl., Ecclesiastes. 

Ed., Edition ; Editor. . 

Edm., Edmund. 

Edw., Edward. 

e. g. (exempli gratia), Fo»exampia. 

E. N. E., East-northeast. 

Eng., English ; England. 

Eph., Ephesians ; Ephraim. 

E. S. E., East-southeast. 

Esq., Esquire. 

et al. (et alibi), And elsewhere. 

et al. (et alii), And others. 

et seq.(et sequentia), And following. 

etc. or &c. (et ccetera), And others > 

And so forth. 
Ex., Example ; Exodus. 
Ez., Ezra. 
Ezek., Ezekiel. 
Fahr. or F., Fahrenheit (thermom 

eter). 
Feb., February. 



Abbreviations. 



321 



Gov., Governor. 

gr., Grains. 

h., Hours. 

Hab., Habakkuk. 

Hag., Haggai. 

H. B. M., His (or Her) Britannic 
Majesty. 

hdkf., Handkerchief. 

Heb., Hebrews. 

H. H. His Holiness (the Pope). 

hhd., Hogsheads. 

H. M., His (or Her) Majesty. 

Hon., Honorable. 

Hos., Hosea. 

H.R.H.,His (or Her) Royal High- 
ness. 

ib. or ibid, (ibidem), In the same 
place. 

id. (idem), The same. 

Idaho, Idaho. 

i. e. (id est), That is. 

I. H. S. (Jesus hominum Salvator), 
Jesus, the Savior of men. 

111., Illinois. 

in., Inches. 

incog, (incognito), Unknown. 

Ind., Indiana. 

Ind. T., Indian Territory. 

inst., Instant, the present month. 

Iowa or lo., Iowa. 

I. O. O. F., Independent Order of 
Odd Fellows. 

Isa., Isaiah. 

Jac, Jacob. 



Jan., January. 

Jas., James. 

Jer., Jeremiah. 

Jona., Jonathan. 

Jos., Joseph. 

Josh., Joshua. 

Jr. or Jun., Junior. 

Judg. ? Judges. 

Kans. Or Kan., Kansas. 

Ky., Kentucky. 

1., Line ; 11., Lines. 

1. or <£, Pounds sterling. 

La., Louisiana. 

Lam., Lamentations. 

L., Latin. 

lb. or lb. (libra or librce), Pound or 

pounds in weight. 
1. c, Lower case (small letter). 
Lev., Leviticus. 
L. I., Long Island. 
Lieut., Lieutenant. 
IjLtJB.(Legum Baccalaureus),Ba,ch. 

elor of Laws. 
LL.D. (Legum Doctor), Doctor of 

Laws. 
M. or Mons., MonsieuF. 
M. (meridies), Noon. 
m., Miles ; Minutes. 
Mad., Madam. Mme., Madame 
Maj., Major. 
Mai., Malachi. 
Mar., March. 
Mass., Massachusetts. 



322 



Supplementary and Review. 



M. C, Member of Congress. 

M. D. (Medicines Doctor), Doctor 

Ox Medicine. 
Md., Maryland, 
mdse., Merchandise. 
Me., Maine. 

Mem., Memorandum ; Memoranda. 
Messrs., Messieurs. 
Mic, Micah. 
Mgr., Monseigneur. 
Mich., Michigan ; Michael. 
Minn., Minnesota. 
Miss., Mississippi. 
Mile., Mademoiselle. 
Mmes., Mesdames. 
Mo., Missouri, 
mo., Months. 
Mon., Monday. 
M. P., Member of Parliament. 
Mont., Montana, 
Mr., Mister. 

Mrs., Mistress (pronounced Missis). 
MS., Manuscript. 
MSS., Manuscripts. 
Mt., Mountain. 
N., North. 

N. A., North America. 
Nath., Nathaniel. 
N. B. (nota bene), Mark well. 
N. C, North Carolina 
N. Dak., North Dakota. 
N. E., New England. 
N. E., Northeast. 
Nebr. or Neb., Nebraska. 



Neh., Nehemiah. 

Nev., Nevada. 

N. H-, New Hampshire. 

N. J., New Jersey. 

N. Mex. or N. M., New Mexico, 

N.N.E., North-northeast. 

N.N.W., North-northwest. 

N. O., New Orleans. 

No. (numero), Number. 

Nov., November. 

N. W-, Northwest. 

N. Y., New York. 

Obad., Obadiah. 

Oct., October. 

Ohio or O., Ohio. 

Oreg. or Or., Oregon. 

Oxon. (Oxonia), Oxford. 

oz. 5 Ounces. 

p., Page, pp., Pages. 

Pa. or Penn., Pennsylvania. 

Payt. or payt., Payment. 

per cent, or per ct. (per centum) ol 
%, By the hundred. 

Ph. D. (Philosophies Doctor), Doc- 
tor of Philosophy. 

Phil., Philip ; Philippians. 

Phila., Philadelphia. 

pk., Pecks. 

P. M., Postmaster. 

P. M. or p. m. (post meridiem). 
Afternoon. 

P. O., Post-Office. 

Pres., President. 

Prof., Professor. 



Abbreviations. 



32S 



Pro tern, (pro tempore), For the 

time being. 
Prov.j Proverbs. 

prox. (proximo), The next month. 
P. S.j Postscript. 
Ps., Psalms. 
pt., Pints. 

pwt., Pennyweights. 
qt., Quarts. 

q. v. (quod vide), Which see. 
Qy., Query. 
rd., Rods. 
Reed., Received. 
Rev., Reverend; Revelation. 
R. I., Rhode Island. 
Robt., Robert. 
Rom., Romans (Book of) ; Roman 

letters. 
R. R., Railroad. 
R. S. V. P. (Repondez sHl vous 

plait), Answer, if you please. 
Rt. Hon., Right Honorable. 
Rt. Rev., Right Reverend. 
S., South. 
s., Shillings. 
S. A. ? South America. 
Saml. or Sam., Samuel. 
Sat., Saturday. 
S. C, South Carolina. 
S. Dak., South Dakota. 
S. E., Southeast. 
Sec, Secretary. , 
sec, Seconds. 
Sep. or Sept., September. 



Sol., Solomon. 

sq. ft., Square feet, 

sq- in., Square inches. 

sq. m., Square miles. 

S.S.E., South-southeast. 

S.S.W., South-southwest. 

St., Street ; Saint. 

S. T. D. {Sacrm Theologice Boctor\ 

Doctor of Divinity, 
Sun., Sunday. 
Supt., Superintendent, 
S. W., Southwest. 
T., Tons ; Tuns. 
Tenn., Tennessee. 
Tex., Texas. 
Theo., Theodore. 
Theoph., Theophilus. 
Thess., Thessalonians. 
Thos., Thomas. 
Thurs., Thursday, 
Tim., Timothy. 
tr., Transpose. 
Treas., Treasurer. 
Tues., Tuesday. 
ult. (ultimo), Last — last month. 
U. S. or U. S. A., United States 

of America ; United States 

Army. 
U. S. M., United States Mail. 
U. S. N., United States Navy. 
Utah or U. Ter., Utah Territory. 
Va., Virginia. 

Vice-Pres., Vice-President. 
viz. (videlicet), To wit, namely. 



384 



Supplementary and Review. 



vol., Volume, 
vs. (versus), Against. 
Vt., Vermont. 
W., West. 

Wash., Washington. 
Wed., Wednesday. 
Wis., Wisconsin. 
(vk., W^eeks. 
Wm., William. 



W.N.W., West-northwest. 

W.S.W., West-southwest. 

W. Va., West Virginia. 

Wyo., Wyoming. 

Xmas., Christmas, 

yd., Yards. 

y. or yr., Years. 

Zech., Zechariah. 

& Co., And Company. 



ADDITIONAL SUBJECTS FOR THEMES. 



1. Apples and Nuts. 


22. Castles in Spain. 


2. A Pleasant Evening. 


23. Young America. 


3. My Walk to School. 


24. Black Diamonds. 


4. Pluck. 


25. Mosquitoes. 


5. School Friendships. 


26. A Day in the Woods. 


6. When my Ship Comes in. 


27. A Boy's Trials. 


7. Ancient and Modern Warfare 


28. The Yankee. 


8. The View from my Window. 


29. Kobinson Crusoe. 


9. Homes without Hands. 


30. Street Arabs. 


10. 1 Can. 


31. Legerdemain. 


11. My Friend Jack. 


32. Our Neighborhood. 


12. John Chinaman. 


33. Examinations. 


13. Irish Characters. 


34. Theater-going. 


14. Kobin Hood. 


35. Donkeys. 


15. Monday Morning, 


36. The Southern Negro. 


16. My Native Town. 


37. A Rainy Saturday. 


17. Over the Seas. 


38. Spring Sports. 


18. Up in a Balloon. 


39. How Horatius Kept the Bridge, 


19. Queer People. 


40. Jack Frost. 


20. Our Minister. 


41. My First Sea Voyage. 


21. A Plea for Puss. 


42. Monkeys. 



Additional Subjects fop Themea 



325 



43. Grandmothers. 


76. A Day on a Trout Stream. 


44. The Boy of the Story Book. 


77. Of what Use are Flowers ? 


45. Famous Streets. 


78. A Descent in a Diving BelL 


46. Pigeons. 


79. A Day on the Farm. 


47. Jack and Gill. 


80. Thanksgiving Day. 


48. Make Haste Slowly. 


81. A Day at the Fair. 


49. Commerce. 


82. Camping Out. 


50. The Ship of the Desert. 


83. The Circus. 


51. Winter Sports. 


84. The Menagerie. 


52. Whiskers. 


85. At the Photographer's. 


53. Gypsies. 


86. The Fourth of July. 


54. Cities of the Dead. 


87. Christmas. 


55. Street Cries. 


88. A Long Tramp. 


56. The World Owes me a Living. 


89. At the Museum. 


57. Politeness. 


90. A Day by the Sea. 


58. Cleanliness akin to Godliness 


. 91. Newspapers. 


59. Fighting Windmills. 


92. A Great Fire. 


60. Along the Docks. 


93. Ancient and Modern Modes of 


61. Maple Sugar. 


Travel. 


62. Umbrellas. 


94. Much Ado about Nothing. 


63. A Girl's Trials. 


95. Earthquakes. 


64. A Spider's Web. 


96. How I Spend my Saturdays. 


65. The Story of Ruth. 


97. The Stars. 


66. Clouds. 


98. The Planets. 


67. A Country Store. 


99. Dreams. 


68. Timepieces. 


100. Fresh Air. 


69. Bores. 


101. Paper. 


70. Our Sunday School. 


102. The North Pole. 


71. Autumn's Colors. 


103. Ships. 


72. The Mission of Birds. 


104. Birds' Nests. 


73. Parasites. 


105. Trees. 


74. The Tides. 


106. Mountains. 


75. The Schoolmaster in the " De- 


• 107. Rivers. 


serted Village." 


108. Books. 



3-36 



Supplementary and Review, 



109. 


Public Opinion. 


141. 


Sailors. 


110. 


Caterpillars. 


142. 


Instinct. 


111. 


America Two Hundred Years 143. 


A Farm Yard. 




Ago. 


144. 


Spiders. 


112. 


America Two Hundred Years 145. 


Wit and Humor. 




Hence. 


146. 


Recreation. 


113. 


Indian Summer. 


147. 


Influence of Climate on Cha^ 


114. 


The Language of Animals. 




acter. 


115. 


Our Language. 


148. 


Trades Unions. 


116. 


Ancient and Modern Customs 


, 149. 


My Favorite Books. 


117. 


Coal. 


150. 


Effects of Stimulants. 


118. 


Advertisements. 


151. 


Society. 


119. 


Superstitions. 


152. 


Advantages of Competition. 


120. 


Pioneers. 


153. 


Physical and Moral Courage* 


121. 


Economy and Parsimony. 


154. 


Beauty and Utility. 


122. 


Liberality and Prodigality. 


155. 


A Storm on Land. 


123. 


Reputation and Character. 


156. 


Benefits of Travel. 


124. 


Common Schools. 


157. 


Changes of Fashion. 


125. 


Letter- Writing. 


158. 


Party Feeling. 


126. 


The Postal Service. 


159. 


Novel Reading. 


127. 


A Thousand Years Ago. 


160. 


A Purpose in Life. 


128. 


A Storm at Sea. 


161. 


Advantages of Self-reliance. 


129. 


Ants. 


162. 


Our Government and the In- 


130. 


Aunts. 




dian. 


131. 


My Favorite Author. 


163. 


Corruption in Civil Offices. 


132. 


My Favorite Hero. 


164. 


Methods of Ventilation. 


133. 


Tea. 


165. 


Love of Nature. 


134. 


Courage and Temerity. 


166. 


"The Pilgrim's Progress." 


135. 


Caution and Cowardice. 


167. 


The Humble Origin of Great 


136. 


Ancient Greece. 




Men. 


137. 


The Art of Reading. 


168. 


Conscience. [sions. 


138. 


Railways. 


169. 


The Power of Early Impres- 


139. 


Telegraphs. 


170. 


Earnestness as an Element of 


140. 


The Most Useful Metal. 




Success. 



Additional Subjects for Themes. 



327 



171. 

172. 
173. 
174. 
175. 
176. 
177. 

178. 
179. 
180. 
181. 
182. 
183. 
184. 

185. 
186. 
187. 
188. 
189. 
190. 



Style in Writing. 

Politics and Statesmanship. 

Our Environments. 

Curiosity. 

Cheerfulness as a Duty. 



191. Self-control is True Freedom, 

192. Confusion and Order. 

193. A Sunrise. 

194. A Sunset. 

195. My Experience in Gardening. 



Mother-wit and Book-learning. 196. Fashionable Follies. 
An Old Fashioned Corn-husk- 197. Winter Evenings. 



mg. 
Capital and Labor. 
Law and Tyranny. 
Liberty and Anarchy. 
Cant and Sincerity. 
AHec tation and Naturalness. 
Sentiment and Reason. 



198. A Flood. 

199. Pins. 

200. A Picnic. 

201. The Art of Printing. 

202. Wild Flowers. 

203. Insect Life. 

204. My Countrv. 



Canal through the Isthmus of 205. Early Friendships. 



Panama. 
Steam as a Motive Power. 
Power of Kindness. 
Influence of Poetry. 
The Lust of Wealth. 
Reverence. 



206. Early Rising. 

207. Kindness to Animals. 

208. My Ideas of a Noble Char, 

acter. 

209. An Instance of True Courage. 

210. Uses of Gold. 



The Formation of Character. 211. A Presidential Campaign. 

212. Limited and Universal Suffrage. 

213. Should Education be Compulsory ? 

214. Should Capital Punishment be Abolished ? 

215. Was the Execution of Andre Unjust ? 

216. Knowledge is Power. 

217. Delays are Dangerous. 

218. The Child is Father of the Man. 

219. The Pen is Mightier than the Sword. 

220. Look before you ere you Leap. 

221. Better to Wear out than to Rust out. 

222. When in Rome, Do as the Romans Dc* 

223. Not all that Glistens is Gold. 



-};>£ Supplementary and Review. 



224. The Early Bird Catches the Worm. 

225. The Watched Pot never Boils. 

226. Well-Begun is Half-Done. 

227. A Stitch in Time Saves Nine. 

228. Where there's a Will there's a Way. 

229. There is no New Thing under the Sun. 

230. Evil is wrought by want of thought 
As well as want of heart. 

For Additional Exercises in Composition write biographies oi 
distinguished men, accounts of historical events, descriptions of races 
of men, classes of animals, places, processes of manufacture, invert 
tions, etc. 



WORD-BUILDING- 



Roots, or Stems, and Prefixes and Suffixes. 



Copyright, 1892, 
By BRAINERD KELLOGG and ALONZO REED. 



THE COMPLETE COURSE IN ENGLISH 
includes 
Reed's Introductory Language Work. 
Reed's Word Lessons— A Complete Speller. 
Reed & Kellogg's Graded Lessons in English. 
Reed & Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English. 
Reed & Kellogg's One-Book Course in English, 
Kellogg & Reed's Word-Building. 
Kellogg & Reed's The English Language. 
Kellogg's Rhetoric. 
Kellogg's English Literature. 
Kellogg's Editions of Shakespeare's Plays, 
The English Classic Series. 



Copyright, 1892, by 
Brainerd Kellogg and Alonzo Reed. 



Press of J. J. Little & Co. 
Astor Place, New York 



WORD-BUILDING. 



Elementary English. 

Boots, or Stems, given under "Elementary English," in the 
Syllabus of the Regents of the University of the State of 

New York. 

INTRODUCTION, 

I. The Meanings of Hoot and Stem. — The word root is used 
by philologists to denote the simplest and most primitive forms which 
words once had, or to which they can now be traced.. In this sense 
of the word— its rigidly scientific sense — the word root names that 
monosyllabic form which is the origin and source of all verbal deriva- 
tives. But usage applies the word as well to later forms of thes»_> 
original and primitive words — forms from which, by the use of pre 
fixed and suffixed syllables, new words are produced — nouns, adjec 
fives, verbs, and adverbs. Respectable as is the authority for calling 
these "later forms " stems, what we regard as the prevailing usage 
leads us to choose roots instead. 

II. Definitions. — A primitive word is one not derived from 
another word in the same language. 

A derivative word is one derived from another word ; as, un- 
manfo/, man being the primitive word. 

A compound word is one composed of two or more simple words ; 
.as, forty-two. 

Prefixes and suffixes are, with rare exceptions, relics of words 
once independent, but now run down into mere formative elements. 
They are used, each with a meaning of its own, to modify the mean- 



4 Word- Building. 

Lng of the root to which in the derivative they are attached ; though, 
when many of them are used in the same word, it is sometimes diffi- 
cult to detect in the derivative the distinct force of each. Prefixes 
precede the root, and suffixes follow it. In the following paragraph 
the illustrative instance exhibits the root junct 9 the prefixes con and 
dis, the suffixes ion, ive, and ly, and the six derivative words formed 
by combination of the root with these prefixes and suffixes. 

III. Explanation. — The work below, compacted for the sake of 
brevity, needs explanation. If, as is usual, two or more prefixes 
are to be united in succession with the following root, — or with this 
and the suffix after it, — these prefixes stand unconnected with each 
other by the + sign. If any two of these are to be taken together 
and treated as a single prefix, these two are grouped by the + sign. 
The suffix immediately following the root is to be united with it 
in its combination with each prefix or group of prefixes. If other 
suffixes follow, the same thing is to be done with these singly or 
in groups, the single suffixes or the groups being separated from 
each other by an or in Roman type. The suffix, or the group taken 
as one, between the first or and the second, is to enter into the same 
combination or combinations as did the first suffix. And so is the 
suffix or the group between the second or and the third, etc., and 
that which follows the last or. For instance, if under junct we had 
con, dis+junct + ion, or ive, or ive + ly, this would mean that the 
pupil had to do as directed with con + junct + ion, dis + junct + 
ion, con + junct + ive, dis+junct + ive, con + junct + ive + ly, dis + 
junct + ive + ly ; or, dropping signs and the black letters, with the 
words conjunction, disjunction, conjunctive, disjunctive, conjunctively, 
disjunctively. 

IV. The Moots and their Order.— Most of the roots in the 
Regents' lists are Latin, and are found usually in the Latin verb. We 
give first the root or roots found in the verb. These stand in the 
infinitive of the verb and the perfect participle. That in the perfect par- 
ticiple ends usually in at or it or t, and of course denotes the act, 
expressed by the verb, as completed. The future participle root end- 
ing in ur follows, if any English words derived from it are to be 
formed in the paragraph succeeding. The roots which follow in 
parentheses are mostly those into which the roots just spoken of have 
changed in their long sojourn in the French language and in English^ 



Introduction. 5 

If the roots in the Regents' lists are from Latin nouns or adjectives, 
all that we need to say here is, that the roots in parentheses are modified 
forms of those which precede them. 

V. The Meanings of the Moots and of English Words 
derived from them. — It is easy to ascertain the meaning of the 
root found in the infinitive and of that found in the perfect participle. 
These meanings are given or implied in the definition of the Latin 
infinitive which follows the roots themselves. It is easy to ascertain the 
meanings of the English words derived from the roots not in paren- 
thesis. It is not so easy to get at the signification of the roots in 
parentheses, and that of the English words derived from them. Often 
the etymological sense has faded out of the root ; and the words, if 
metaphorical, do not always suggest the likeness on which the meta- 
phor is based. The pupil will sometimes need a hint from the teacher, 
sometimes he may profitably consult the dictionary. We have thrown 
in liberally suggestions in parentheses and in Helps for the Pupil j 
but, where the pupil can seize upon the root idea, and, combining it with 
the meanings of the modifying prefixes and suffixes, can give the sig- 
nification of the derivative, he should be allowed to do it. As well 
do his physical exercise for him as relieve him of the intellectual 
labor which he can do alone. The main worth of this work con- 
sists in the exercise, which it compels, of the pupil's judgment. 

YI. The Lessons. — The length of the Lessons assigned has 
been determined by the hope that all the work called for by us can 
be done. But those teachers able to take up only the root-forms 
selected by the Regents can perhaps run two or three of our Lessons 
into one. The root-forms they seek are easily found. They are 
marked by the asterisk, and are usually the first or the second treated 
by us in the several paragraphs. 

VII. Direction. — The roots are printed in black letters, the prefixes 
and suffixes in italics. The prefixes and suffixes are given and defined 
on the pages immediately following these Lessons under " Elementary 
English." Find there the meanings of the prefixes and suffixes used 
below, find in the Lessons the meanings of the roots with which these 
prefixes and suffixes combine, and then give the signification of the 
derivatives formed by the combination. Frame phrases or sentences 
containing these derivatives properly used. Do not look for the mean- 
ings of letters within marks of parenthesis and unitalicized. 



6 Word- Building. 

Note the changes, if any, which metaphor has wrought in the mean- 
ings of words. The literal meaning of a word is not always that which 
it really bears. From the likeness in position between the upper part 
of one's body and the top of a nail, we transfer the name of the one 
object to the other, and speak of the head of a nail. From the real or 
fancied resemblance in function between one's head and Washington 
city, we may carry over caput, the Latin name of the head, and, giv- 
ing it to the city, call Washington the capital of the United States. 

Memark. — We indicate here the way in which the work required in 
this Direction may be done. The roots we take are Frang f 
Fract, and Fractur, Lesson IX. Turning to the end of these 
Lessons in " Elementary English," for the prefixes and suffixes, 
we combine their meanings, found there, with the meaning of the 
roots in Lesson IX., give the signification of the derivatives 
grouped in that Lesson, and illustrate their use, 

MODEL. 

Frangible, capable of being broken— a clay pipe-stem is frangible; 

frangibility, state of being frangible, name of the abstract quality — 
the f rangibility of a pipe-stem ; 

infrangible, incapable of being easily broken — oak is comparatively 
infrangible ; 

in/remgribility, state of being infrangible — the infrangibility of the 
oak; 

refrangible, capable of being turned back, or out of a straight course 
— a ray of light is refrangible ; 

re/Wmf/ibility, state of being refrangible — the ref rangibility of 
light; 

fragment, a piece broken off— a fragment of a tea-cup; 

fragmentary, belonging to a fragment, in fragments— a fragmentary 

report of the speech ; 
suffrage (a probable explanation given in Lesson IX.) ; 



Introduction. 7 

irre/rar/able, incapable of being easily broken down — A's argument 
was irrefragable, irrefutable, a metaphorical use of the word ; 

irrefragafoly, in an irrefragable manner— he irrefragably established 
his point in the debate ; 

infringe, to break into — one's rights are infringed by the thief; 

infringement, act of infringing — the infringement of the treaty, a 
metaphorical use of the word, since a treaty cannot literally suffer 
a breaking into; 

fraction, state of being broken, a part — the fraction of an hour; 

fractional, belonging to a fraction — fractional currency ; 

fractions, not integers, or whole numbers — ^ and & are fractions; 

infract, to break— to infract is to encroach upon; 

refract, to bend sharply back — water refracts the light; 

infraction, the breaking— the infraction of the rules, a metaphorical 
use of the word ; 

refraction, the bending sharply back, half breaking — the refraction 
of light from the oar-blade in the water; 

refractory, bent away from the proper or natural course— the refrac- 
tory or stubborn child, a metaphorical use of the word; 

refractoriness, state of being refractory— the refractoriness of his 
child is a grief to the father ; 

fracture, a break— there is a fracture in the plate; 

fragile, capable of being broken — fragile playthings; 

fragility , state of being fragile — the fragility of icicles ; 

frail, capable of being broken down, weak, feeble — frail health or 
constitution, metaphorical ; 

frailty and frailness, state of being frail — frailty of character, of 
the intellect. 



LATIN ROOTS. 

Lesson L 

To the Teacher. — This work of word-building may be difficult and 
slow at first. But it will rapidly become easy. The same prefixes and 
suffixes are constantly reappearing. The pupil will soon become 
familiar with their meanings, and ready in combining them with the 
meaning of the root. If necessary, the opening lessons may be 
divided. 

To the Pupil. — You will find the Model preceding this Lesson 
helpful to you. Following that, your work of building up words and 
illustrating their use would begin and proceed thus : ent, one who, + 
root ag 9 to do, make agent=one who does, e.g., the agent of the firm; 
ency, state of being, function, +root ag, make agency — state or func- 
tion of an agent, e.g., sold through his agency, or instrumentality; He, 
capable of, + ag, to move, or moving, make agile = quick, nimble, 
e.g., the agile squirrel; iiy, state of being + agile= quickness of move- 
ment, e.g., the agility of the squirrel. 

The prefixes, suffixes, and their meanings are to be found, as you 
have been told, at the end of these Lessons in " Elementary English." 

Ag,* Act, (ig, g 9 actu), from ag e re, ac tus, to do, move, 
urge on, put in motion, drive. 

Ag + ent or ency or He or il f -f- ity ; man (see this root, 

* Roots thus marked are those given in the Regents' Syllabus for the 
present year. 

f The suffixes able, abile, ance, ate, bule, cule, ence, ibile, ible, He, ine, 
ive, ize, le, ose, tude, and ure often drop the final e, and become abl, 
abil, anc, at, bul, cut, enc, ibil, ibl, il, in, iv, iz, I, os, tud, and ur. 
Able, abil, el, er, ery, ibl, ity, ly, or, and tude sometimes drop the 
initial letter, and appear as ble, bil, I, r, ry, bl, ty, y, r, and ude. 
Ary, ly, mony, ory, and y sometimes change y to i, and appear as 
ari, li, moni, ori, and i. 



Elementary E7iglish. 9 

Lesson XIII.) + ag -f er or (e) ; man + ag(e) 4- able or we^^ ; 
ex + ig + ent or ency; 1 nav (see the root, Lesson XVI.) 
+ ig + able or able + ness ; prod + ig + al or al + ity; 2 amb + 
ig + (u)ous* or (u)ity ; co( = cttrn)+g + ent or ency. 4 Act; 
act + u?£ or ive 4- ?y 5 or ^ + ^y or ion or io% + aSfe or or or 
r + ess; counter, en, ex, over, re, re-\-en, trans + act ; counter, 
ex, re, trans + act + ion ; en + act 4 m^/ ; ex 4 ac£ + ness } 
avtti + #/ or al + /y or al 4 fcYy. 

From wa# i ^i re, wa# i gd tus, derived from agere, come 
nav + igat + or or £<m or (e) ; circum + nav + igat + or or 
iow or (e). From the frequentative f ag i td re, ag i td tus, 
derived from agere, come agitat + or or ion or (e) ; co 4- 
gitat + ion or (e). 6 From actio are, actudtus, derived 
from agere, come actuate ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — We do not in these Helps define, but 
attempt to point to the paths which may lead to definitions. J Ex- 
igency, something urging instant action. 2 Prodigality, an urging 
into wasteful extravagance. 3 Ambiguous, uncertain — note the force 
of ambi. 4 Cogency, the compelling force of the thought. The 8 ly is 
A.-S. — actively is a hybrid, its parts are from different languages. 
6 Cogitate, to think, involving intellectual activity. 

Alt,* from al tus, high, lofty, 

Alt + ar (raised) ; alt(i)tude. 

From the derivative ex al td re, ex al td tus, to raise,, come 
ex + alt ; ex + alt + ed ; ex 4- altat 4- ion. 

Anim,* from an i mus 9 mind, intellect, feeling, spirit, 

Equ (see this root, Lesson VI. ) 4- anim 4- ity ; magn (see 
the root, Lesson XIII.) +anim + ous or ity ; un (see root, 

f A frequentative expresses a repetition, or an increase, of the action 
denoted by the primitive. 



10 



Word-Building. 



Lesson XX IV. ) 4- anim + ous or ity ; pusill {pusillus, small, 
mean) -f anim + ous or ous + ly or ity ; anim + os + ity ; l 
anim-}- ad (the prefix) 4- vert (to turn) ; anim + ad + vers 
•\-ion ; 2 the true aw£m+(us) (L.) of the affair. 

Helps fcr the Pupil. — 1 Animosity, the feeling hostile. 2 Animad- 
version, the mind turned in criticism upon its object; is this meta- 
phorical ? 



Lesson II. 

Remark. — If the pupil is required to write out any part of his work, 
some form like this may be adopted — the necessary work with the 
parts of the word, outlined above, not being here set down: — 



Word. 


Literal Meaning. 


Illustration of its Use. 


Manage, 


To do something by the hand. 


The driver manages his horses. 
{Literal. ) 

< The speaker manages his voice. 
(Metaphorical, since the work 
is not done by the hand, but 
by the organs of speech.) 



If the pupil should bring in as an illustration, The teacher manages 
his pupils, he could perhaps see that this use of manage is still more 
metaphorical, since the work is done by nothing physical, but by 
authority or personal influence. 



Ann,* Anni, Annu, {enni, en) 9 from dn nus, a year. 

Ann + al + ist or al + s j 1 anni + vers -f ary ; 2 hi, cent (see 
root, Lesson IV.), tri, sept (seven), mill (mille, thousand), 
per + enni + al ; super + annu + at + ed or at -f ion. 



Elementary English. 11 

Prom an nu a lis, yearly,, come annu + al or al-\-ly or ity. 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Annals, a relation of the events of the year. 
2 Anniversary, the annual return of the day which commemorates 
some event. 

Apt *, (att, ept), from dp tus, fit or fitted,— the p. p. of obsolete 
vb., dp e re, to fasten, join together. 

Apt; apt + ly or ness ; in -{-apt; apt(\) + tude ; att(i) 
-f hide or tud (m)+ize ; ad, 1 in + ept. 

From the frequentative ad ap td re, ad ap td tus, to fit, 
come ad + apt ; ad + apt + able or abil + ity ; ad 4- aptat + ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Adept, one skilled in something ; inept, 
unskillful. 

Bas *, (bass), from has, or bds sus, low, humble. 

Bas(e); bas(e) + ly or ness or ment ; a, de + bas(e) ; a, 
rf# + bas(e) + m#7?i ; frass. * 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Bass — what part in music ? 
Krev *, (brief), from bre vis, short, 

Brev + ?% or^; 1 &rer(i) + ary; 2 5ne/ (ad j . ) ; brief + ly ; 
brief (a lawyer^) ; brief -h less. 

From ab bre vi a re, ab bre vi a tus, derived from brevis, 
come ab -hbreviat -f ion or (e) ; a + hridg + ment or er or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — l Brevet, applied to a commission, or to an 
officer of higher rank than that for which he receives pay. 2 Brevi- 
ary, a compend, a book of the Church, not the missal. 

Cad,* €a§, (cid, cay, eh, casu), from, cade re, casus, to fall, 
to fall out, to perish, to happen. 

Cad + ence; 1 de + cad + ence or ency ; ac, in + cid + ence 2 
or ent° or ent-\-al or ent + al + ly ; oc-\- cid -\-ent* or ent-\-al; 
co + in + cid -f ent or ence or (e) ; de + cid+(u)ous ; 5 tfe + 



12 Word-Building. 

cay ; ch + ance ; 6 mis, per + ch + ance. Cas(e) ; oc -f eas + 
ion 7 or ion 4- al or ion + al + ly ; casu + al or al + ly or aZ + #«/ 
or ist 8 or is^ + ic + aZ or ist -f r#. 

Helps for the Pupil. — Add the meaning of al to that of incident, 
taken as a whole, and the meaning of ly to incidental, taken as a 
whole. In general, take the more simple combinations first, and use 
these as wholes in defining other derivatives. 1 Cadence, used of the 
voice only. 2 Incidence, a falling on or upon, as of one line upon 
another. 3 Incident, an occurrence. 4 Occident — the sun apparently 
falls down where? 5 Deciduous— applied to what trees, and why? 
e Chance, sl happening. 7 An occasion falls out or happens. 8 Casuist, 
one skilled in cases or questions of conduct-— ac, ic, ist, and ism are 
the common Gk. suffixes. 

Lessor III. 

To the Teacher. — The meaning of some prefixes seems almost to 
have faded out of them in certain combinations. To detect the force 
of de and re, for instance, in deceive and receive, below, is a task too 
subtile for the pupil. Allow him to give the proper meanings of such 
words (they are few) as wholes, without a hunt for the separate mean- 
ing of each element. 

Cap, Capt,* Captur, (cip 9 ceiv? cept, ceipt, celt), from 
cap e re? cap tus 9 to take, seize, hold. 

Cap 4- able or abil + ity or acious or ac + ity or acious-\- 
ness or ac + it 1 -r ate ; in + cap + able or ac + ity or ac + it 4* 
ate ; prin (—prim, see root, Lesson XXI.) + cip + al* or le z 
oval + ity or al + ly; muni (see root, Lesson XVI.) +cip 
4 al or al 4 ity ; 4 parti (see root, Lesson XVIII. ) 4 cip 4 le 5 
or (i)aZ ; in 4 cij> 4 (\)ent or (i)e^ 4- Z# or (i)ence ; 6 re + cip -f 
(i)e?it or (e) ; £<m, de, per, re + ceiv + er or ##fe or (e). Capt 
4 i#0 or iv 4 ^y or iv 4 a#0 or iv + at 4 ^# or or or (i)ows ; #z, 
inter, pre 4 cept; de, ex, per, 1 re 4 cept 4 ion; de, per, 
pre, re, sus + cept + ive ; ez + cept -{- ion + al or ion 4 able or 



Elementary English. 13- 

or ; sus + cept 4- ible or ibil + i% ; "pre -f cepf -f or or r + ess / 
re + ceipt; con, de + ceit. Captur(e). 

From an tic i pare (anti for ante), an tic ipd tus, and 
par tic ipd re, par tic ipd tus, derivatives of caper e, come 
anti 4- cipat -f tow or ory or (e) ; parti + cip -f aw£ ; parti -Y 
cipat + ion or (e). From eman cipdre, e man ci pd tus, a- 
derivative of caper e, come + maw (see root, Lesson XIII.) 
-f cipat + ion or or or (e). From oc cu pd re, oc cupd tus, a 
derivative of caper e, come oc + cup + yor (i)#r or <m^ or ancy ; 
oc + cwpat + ion. From the frequentative acceptdre, ac- 
cep td tus, come ac + cept ; ac + cept + able or #Z>fe + ness or 
a^oe or gr ; ac + ceptat + io%. 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 It, a L. n. stem ending. 2 Principal, first 
in importance. 3 Principle, that which is fundamental, from which 
something proceeds. 4 Municipality, originally, not now, a town re- 
ceiving the rights of Roman citizenship while retaining its own laws. 
5 Participle, a word partaking of two natures. 6 Incipience, a taking- 
hold of at the beginning. 7 Perception, the act of taking, or that 
taken, through the senses into the mind. 

Carn * 9 {cami, cham, car), from cd ro, car nis, flesh. 

Cam -hal 1 or al-h ly or al + ity or o^/e ; carni + va£ 2 (im- 
perative vale, be strong ; hence used in farewells) ; cami- 
+ vor (to eat) + ous ; charn + el ;* car(v) + ion. 

From £&r w# ti o, fleshiness, comes 4 carnat + ion. From 
the derivative in car nd re, in car nd tus, come in + carnat 
+ ion b or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — Carnal, fleshly; how comes the meaning- 
sensual, sinful ? 2 Carnival, a festival just before Lent, and so, ac- 
cording to Webster (but not Skeat), "a farewell to flesh." 3 Charnel 
houses are houses for the dead — vaults and sepulchers. 4 Carnation,, 
flesh color. 5 Incarnation, putting into a body. 



14 Word-Building. 

Lesson IV. 

Ced,* Ces§, {ceed, ceas), from ced e re, ces sus, to go, yield, 
give up. 

€ed(e) ;* ac, con, inter, pre, re, se-\-ced(e) ; pre + ced + 
ent or ence or ency ; un+pre + ced + ent + ed ; pro -\- ced + 
11 re ; ante + ced + ent or ent 4- ly or ence ; ex, pro, sue -f ceed ; 
pro + ceed + iwy or 5. J bs, 2 ac, ex, pro, re, sue 3 + cess ; ac, 
con," inter, pro, re, se, sue + cess + ion ; inter, pre -{-de, sue 
+ cess + or ; con, ex, sue + cess + ive ; ac + cess + ible or or^/ ; 
in + cess + ant ; sue + cess +ful or ful + ly; an(=a?ite)-\- 
cest(=cess) 4- or or r + al or r + y ; ceas(e) ; ceas(e) + fess or 
less + ly ; de + ceas(e) . 5 

From the frequentative ces sd re, ces sd tus, we have 
cessat + ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ' Cede a territory. 2 J. bscess, a collection, in 
any tissue of the body, of pus withdrawn from other tissues. 3 Success, 
a following, a result ; now, only a favorable result. 4 Concession, a 
yielding to a demand. 8 Decease, a ^o% /'rom- life, death. 

Cent,* (centi), from cen £ wm, a hundred. 

Cen£ / cent + ur + y or w + ion * or enni + al or en + ary 

or en + ah + an ; per + cent 4- 0^0 ; 2 centi +ped(e) (see root, 
Lesson XIX.) or grad(e) 3 (see root, Lesson X.) or gram* 
or meter (see root, Lesson XXV.). 

Helps for the Pupil. — l Centurion, a Roman captain of a hundred. 
2 Percentage, the rate per cen£ or on a hundred. A 3 centigrade ther- 
mometer. 4 Gram, the unit of weight in the metric system. 

Cing,* Cinct, Cinctur, (shing), from cin #re re, cine tus, to 
gird, surround, enclose. 

Sur + cingr + le ; l siting 2 + le + 5. Pre, 3 swe 4 + cincf / su6 
-f- cincf + ly or w#ss. Cinctur(e). 



Elementary English. 15 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Surcingle, a girth for a horse. 2 Shingles, 
an eruption encircling the body. 3 Precinct, a district within certain 
bounds. 4 Succinct, within narrow compass, concise. 

Clin/ {clen,cliv) 9 from L. form of Grk. klinein, to bend, slope, 
lean. 

Clin -hie or ic + al or ic + s; 1 de+clen + sion; ac, 2 de, z 
pro 4 + cliv 4- ity. 

From in cli nd re, in cli nd tus, dec li nd re, dec li nd tus, 
rec li nd re, rec li nd tus, we get de, in, re + clin(e) ; de, in 
+ clin + able ; de, in + clinat + ion ; de + clinatur(e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — In * clinics, the patients recline. In 2 accliv- 
ity, the slope is ascending ; in 3 declivity, descending. 4 Proclivity, a 
leaning towards. 

Lessor V. 

Cor,* Cord, Cordi, (cour), from cor, cor dis, the heart. 

Cor (e) * c*mr + ### ; 2 ccmr + ^e + ous or a#e + ous + /# ; 
Jis, 6?2 4- coifr + $#£ or age + ment. ^4c, con, dis 3 4- cord / ac, 
con, dis + cord + ant or ant + ly or ance ; ac + cord + ing or 
-m^ + ly J A re + cord ; b re + cord + #r or er + ship ; cordi -4- 
al 6 or al+ly or al + ity. 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Core, the ftear/ of the fruit. 2 Courage, the 
&ear£ thought to be its seat. 3 Discord, the Aeartf thought to be the 
seat of feeling. 4 Accordingly, in accord or agreement with. 5 Record, 
a truthful copy, in accord with the facts. 6 Cordial, adj., from the 
heart ; n., something cheering the heart. 

Cur,* Curat, (ur), from cu rd re, cu rd tus, to care for, take 
care of, heal. 

Cur(e) ; cur + able; cur(e) + less ; pro, sine + cur (e) ; 
se, in -\-se + cur(e) + ly ; se, iw + se + c«w + i^ 1 or (e) ; s( =se) 
+ ur(e) ; s + ur(e) + ly ; as + s, in -\- s + ur + ance or (e) ; re 



16 Word- Building. 

+ as + s + ur(e). Curat + or or ive or (e); 2 ac,* in + ac + 
curat(e) ; ac, in + ac + curat(e) + ly ; ac, i% + ae + ctrr + acy. 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Security, one's freedom from care because of 
safety. 2 Curate — whose care or duty does he take upon himself? 
s Accurate — correct because of what taken? 

Curr,* Cur§, (curri, corri, cur, cor, cowri, cours), from 
cHr re re, cur sus, to run, moye quickly, 

Curr + ent or ency 1 or ent + ly; con, oc + curr + ence ; 
curri + culum ; 2 eorri + (dor) ; con, in, oc, re + cur ; sue + 
cor ; 3 court -f er. Curs -f- or?/ or ori + ly ; ex, in + curs -f 
10W y ex -j- ci^s + io^ -h is£ ; e3? + curs f ive or ive + ly ; dis -f* 
curs + ive y 4 pre + curs + or ; cours(e) ; cours + er or ing. 

Helps for the Pupil. — l Currency — what circulates? 2 Curriculum, 
course of study. 3 Succor, to run under, or to the aid of. 4 Discursive, 
running from one thing to another. 

IMct,* (ditt), from die e re, die tus, to say, pronounce. 

Ad, 1 contra, e, inter, pre, ver ( = verus, true) + diet; diet 

■\-ion or ion + ary ; bene, contra, inter, juris 2 (from jus, 

juris, justice), male, pre, val(e) (see Lesson III., under 

Cam) + diet -f ion ; contra, val(e) + diet + org ; ditt + (o) 3 

(it.). 

From the frequentative die td re, die td tus, we have in + 
diet -\- ment ; 4 dictate ion or or or or -f- ship or or + (i)al or 
or + (i)al + ly or (e). From died re, died tus, to proclaim, 
devote, consecrate, we have ab, de, in, pre + dicat(e) ; ab y 
de, in, pre + dieat -f ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Addict, to devote to. 2 Jurisdiction, sphere 
or limits within which one may declare or apply the law. 3 Ditto, said f 
or aforesaid. 4 Indictment, the statement in detail of one's offence. 



Elementary English, 17 

Lessok VI. 

Dign,* (digni, deign, daint, dain), from dig nus, worthy. 

Dign + ity or it + ary; in -\- dign -\- ity ; con + dign; 1 
digni -{- fy ; deign; 2 daint -\-y 3 or i-\-ly or i-hness; dis 
+ dain ; 4 dis + dain -\-ful or ful + ly or fill + ness. 

From in dig nd ri, in dig nd tus, derivative of dignus, we 
get in + dign + ant or ant 4- ly ; in + dignat + iVm. 

Kelps for the Pupil. — l Condign, suitable to the fault. 2 Deign, to 
think ivorihy. A 3 dainty morsel. 4 Disdain, not to think worthy. 

I>uc,* Duct, {duk, ditch, duit), from <£t£ ce re, due tus, to 
lead, to bring forward. 

Ad, con, de, e, in, intro, pro, re, se, re+pro, super + in, 
trd + duc(e) ; due -f al or at ; 1 con + due + ive or n>6 + ness ; 
con, de, e, re + due -}- idle ; duk(e) ; 2 duk(e) -f ^Zom ; dweft -f 
ess or y. Duct; 3 duct + He i or il + ity; ab, con, de, in, 
pro, ague {aqua, water), vi(a) (road) -h duct ; ab, de, intro, 
pro, re -{-pro, se + duct + ion ; de, hi, pro, se -f duct -f ive ; 
con + duct -{-or or r + m; con + duitJ* 

From <?<i ^ cd re, ed u cd tus, derivative of educere, we have 
e + ducat -h ion or or or ed or io?i + al or on/ or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Ducat, first coined in the duchy of Apulia, 
and bearing the word ducatus. 2 Duke, originally a leader in battle. 
z Duct, a passage. 4 Ductile, capable of being drawn out, or elongated. 
Conduit, a canal conducting water. 

Equ,* (equi), from 6B quus, equal, just. 

Equ-\-al or al-hize or «/+ iz^/; <?o, un + equ + al ; co, in-h 
equ + al-{- ity ; equi + ^o# 1 (nox, noctis, night) or nocti 4- al 
or val + ent* or val + ence or t;oc (see root, Lesson XXIV.) 

2 



18 Word-Building. 

From the derivative noun c6 quit as, cs qui td Us, come 
equit + y or able or abl 4- y J in + iquit -f ?/ or ous or 0^5 -f Z#. 
From the derivative verb a? qua re, m qua tus, come equa -f 
ife or bil+ity ; e + quat + ion* or or 5 or ori + al; ad, in 
+ ad + equat(e) ; arf, to + a<i + equat(e) + Z^ ; ad, in -f- ad 
-f equa + cy. 

Helps for the Pupil. — l Equinox, time of equal day and night. 
2 Equivalent, of egwaZ value. 3 Equivocal, doubtful, because open, 
equally, to two or more interpretations. In an 4 equation what are 
equal? 5 Equator — what does this line divide, and into what parts ? 



Lesson VII. 

Fa,* Fat, (f,far), from fdri, fa tus, to speak, 

Af+fa + ble 1 or bil + ity or bl + y ; fa + ble 2 or bullous; 
in + ef+fa + ble ; in+f+ant 3 or ancy or ant + He or ant-\- 
ine ; multi (see root, Lesson XVI.) -r-/ar + (i)0ws; 4 #6 + 
far + (\)ous b or (i)ous + ly or (i)ows + w0ss. Fat(e) ; G /af 
+ «Z 7 or al + ism Q or al-\-ist or al + ity; pre+fat + ory j 
pre+fa + ce. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Affable (the &/e of a&Ze), easily spoken to. 

2 i^«6Ze (the &Ze of bulum), that by which something is s^'cZ or taught. 

3 Infant, one unable to speak. 4 Multifarious, literally, many-speak- 
ing, hence various. 5 Nefarious, contrary to what is divinely spoken, 
hence wicked. 6 i'tofe, spoken by the gods or some power behind them, 
hence fixed, unalterable. 7 Fatal, unalterably destructive. B Fatal- 
ism, the doctrine that things are /a£e<# and so necessary. 

Fac, Fact,* Factur 9 (fie, fy, fair, feat, feas, fash, 
featur, feitur), from fac e re, fac tus, to do, to make. 

Fac -f totum 1 (totus, everything); af^i (ars, artis, art, 
skill), force, of ( = op, ops, ability, help, aid), sacri (see 



Elementary English. 19 

root, Lesson XXI.)+fic+(i)al or (i)al+ly or (e) ; bene 

+ftc + ent or ence or (\)ary ; ef, 2 in + ef, pro, suf+ 
fic + (i)ent or (\)ency or (i)ent + ly; in + suf+fic + (i)ent 
or (i)ent + ly; de+fic + it 3 or (i)ent or (i)ency ; ef+fic 
+ acious or &q/; (/$/, meaning to make, is found, as a 
suffix, in derivatives too numerous to mention ; as, magni/y, 
ran/?/, etc.) ; af+fair (Fr. a /aire, to be done). Fact ; 4 
fact + or or orz/ or or + ship or io?z 5 or (i)ws; bene-\- 
fact + or or a'(m; manu (see root, Lesson XIII.) -\-fact+ 
ory ; G ^, #/, m, 7 j96T, im + per + feet ; con, de, in, per, 
4m + per + feet + ion ; de, ef+fect + ive or ive + ly or ^0 + 
W0ss ; /^ttf / 8 6?6 -\-feat ; feas 4- i&fe 9 or ifo7 + ^ ; /Vxsfo + 
lo?» 10 oi ion + able or ion + abl + y ; counter, sur ( = super), 
for (for is, out of doors) J r feit. 11 Blami + factur -\- er or 
(e) ; featur(e) ; for+feitur(e). 

From the derivative adj. fdcilis and noun fa edit as, 
fa cil i td tis, come /ac + He or ^7 + i^ ; facult + y ; dif-h 
flcult / dif+ficult + y ; facilitate). From the frequenta- 
tive af fee tare, affect a tits, come a/, dis + af+fect; of, 
dis + af + feet + ion; af, dis+af, tin + af + feet + ed ; af-h 
fectat-t-ion. 1 ' 2 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Factotum, a doer of everything. 2 .£$?- 
*tt'e7&£, able of or out of or from itself to produce something, an effect. 
3 Deficit, what is wanting. * Fact, something done; hence = truth, as, 
in fact. 5 Faction, those acting together in opposition to others. 
6 Manufactory, the word remains, though machinery has largely taken 
the place of the hand. 7 Infect, to taint by communicating something 
noxious. A 8 feat, as of swimming. 9 Feasible, that may be done. 
10 Fashion, the make of a thing. " Forfeit, that lost by some misdeed* 
12 Affectation, an assumption, a trying to seem what one is not. 



20 Word-Building. 

Lessor VIII. 

To the Teacher. — The words most frequently used should be 
selected if not all are taken. All are useful, some more useful than 
others. 

Fer,* L<at,* (lay), from fer re, Id tus, to bear, carry. 

Con, de, dif, in, luci 1 (lux, lucis, light), of, pre, prof 
(=pro), re, suf, trans + fer ; circum, con, de, dif, in, pre, 
re, trans +fer + ence ; suf + fer -f er or ance or ing ; pre, re, 
suf, trans + fer + able ; dif+fer + ent or e?it + ly ; coni (co- 
nns, cone), fori (flos, floris, flower), fructi (fructus, fruity 
pesti (pestis, pest), voci (see root, Lesson XXIV.)+/er + 
ous. Col, di, e, ob, 2 pre, pro, 3 re, trans + Zat(e) ; col, oh," re, 
cor -{-re, trans + lat + ion ; di + lat + ory b or ori + ness; ab,* 
ily re, cor + re, super + lat + ive ; de ( = di) + lay* 

From the derivative fer ti lis come fert + He 8 or il + ity or 
il + ize or il + iz + er. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Lucifer, the light-bring er— Venus as morn- 
ing star ; by a strange interpretation of Isa. xiv. 12, applied to Satan. 
2 Oblate, pushed, or borne, out at the sides ; 3 prolate, at the poles. 
4 Oblation = offering. 5 Dilatory, deferred, delayed. 6 Ablative case is 
that denoting separation, bearing away from. 7 Illative, applied to the 
process of reasoning or inferring. 8 Fertile, bearing richly. 

Fid 9 * from fide re, to trust. 

Con+fid + ent 1 or ant 2 or ent-\-ly or ence or ent + (f)al 
or ent + (i)al-\-ly or (e) ; dif+fid + ent 3 or ent + ly or ence. 

From the derivative fid e lis, faithful, come fid + el + ity ; 
in +fid 4- el ; in +fid + el + ity. From the noun fi des come 
per+ftd + y or (i)ous or (i)ous + ly ; de+fy ;* de+fi + ant 
or ant + ly or ance ; fai (Fr. fei or foy) + th or th+ful or 
th+ful + ly or th+ful+ness or th + less or th + less + ly. 



Elementary English. 21 

Helps for the PupiL — * Confident, trusting, assured. 2 Confidant, 
the one trusted. 3 Diffident, distrustful of self. 4 Defy, to disown or 
renounce faith in, to dare. 

Fan,* Finit, from fi ni re, ft ni tus, to end, 

Fin{o) j 1 con, 2 de, re+fin(e) ; con, de, re+fin(e) -\-ment j 
de, in + de +fin + able ; 3 fin + is/^ or isli + er. Finit(e) ; 
finit(e) + ly or wess; in+finit + ive or y or ^^ or (e) ; rfe-h 
finit + ion or ive or (e). 

From the derivative fi nd lis we have fin + a? ; jfm + al + Z«/ 
or al -f ^Vy. From the derivative fi nd re, to furnish a fine or 
tax or subsidy, we hd>>ve fin + ance or anc + (i)al or anc + ier. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Fine, a sum paid settles, ends, a matter ; 
fine, adj., what is well finished is ^me. * Confine, to place within 
bounds. 8 Definable, that may have bounds, or an em?, set to it. 

Lessor IX. 

To the Teacher. — Sometimes two suffixes are found in a word — the 
second adding nothing to, only repeating, the meaning of the first. 
Al, in genetical and generical below, seems only to duplicate the ic. 

Frang,* Fractj Fractur, {frag, f 'ring), from f range re, 
frdc tus, to bend, break, subdue. 

Frang + idle or ibil + ity ; in, re -hfrang + ible or ibil -f 
^2/ ; /mgr + ment or mm^ + ary ; snf+frag 1 (e) ; ir + re-\- 
frag + able or abl-\-y; in+fring(e) ; i?i+fring(e)+ment. 
Fract + ion or ion + al or ion + s ; in, re+fraet ; in, re + 
fract + io% ; re -\-fract + or?/ or ori + ^ess. Fractur(e). 

From frag i lis we have frag + ^7e or il + z% ; /r« -f il j 
fra + il + ^ or i? + wess. 

Helps for the PupiL — 1 Suffrage, perhaps from a broken piece, or 
potsherd, used in voting. For other aid, see the Model preceding Les- 
son I. 



22 Word- Building. 

Fund, Fus,* (found, font), from fun, de re,fu sus, to melt? 
to pour, pour out, shed* 

Re + fund; 1 re+fund + er or merit ; found;* found + 
er or ry ; font. 3 Fus(e) ; con, dif, in, pro, suf, trans -f 
fus(e) ; fas + ion or ible; con, dif, ef, in, pro, trans + fits 
+ ion ; dif, ef+fus + ive. 

From derivative fu ti lis, pouring forth, vain talk, we get 
fut + He 4 or il -f ity. 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Refund, to pour, or to pay, back. 2 Found, 
to melt, and pour into a mould. 3 Font of type. 4 Futile, vain, empty. 

Gen, Genit, (geni, genu, gend, genet), from gig ne re (or 

gi gen ere), to beget, produce, Getter,* from genus* 

gen er is, kind, race 5 class* species,, 

Indi ( = in) -f gen -f ous ; 1 ^pro 4- gen + y ; {gen is found a& 
a suffix in many Greek words ; as, hydnogen, oxygen, endo- 
gen, exogen) J homo,* hetero 3 -f gen -f (e) ous ; geni -f- al 4 or a? 
+ £% or a? + ly or (us) (L. ) ; in + gre^i + ous ; 5 gre^te + ine ; 
in -f genu + ows 6 or ous 4- wess or ows + ly or ^y ; gend (the 
^ excrescent) -f- er ; en + gre^cl + er. Genit + £#0 7 or a? or 
or ; jpro + genit -f or y £0% + genit + &Z j" genet + £<? 8 or ic + o;L 
Gener-\-al or al-\-ity or al + ize or al -{- iz -{- at + ion or to or 
ic + #/ or ic -\-al-\-ly or ows 9 or os + t7 # y ; eow -f gener. 

From the derivative $ms, gentis, we have gent + le l * or 
ee£ or Zy or ry or lei-ness or t7#. From the derivative 
#ew e r<i re, ^^ e rd tus, we have generat + tow or w# or/ 
or or (e) ; #Je, re + generate ion or tVe or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Indigenous, bom in, and hence native to., 
2 Homogeneous, like in &meZ ; 3 heterogeneous, unlike in Hrcd. 4 Genial, 
pleasant, kindly. 5 Ingenious, gifted with inventive genius. 6 Ingen- 
uous,high bom, frank, noble. 7 Genitive, the source case, the o/case. 
6 Genetic, pertaining to source or production. 9 Generous, liberal, cath- 
olic; a quality supposed to belong to high, noble birth. 10 Gentle, mild, 
refined ; a quality supposed to belong to those of a class, or gens. 



Elementary English. 23 



Lesson X. 

To the Teacher. — Seek for variety in conducting the recitation. 
One or two different English words, for instance, may be assigned to 
each of a number of pupils, at the board, or at their seats. These they 
are to analyze, placing the plus sign between prefixes, root, and suf- 
fixes, and underlining the root. An illustration of the use of each 
word, should then be written. This is more important than writing a 
literal definition. 

Grad, Gre§§,* (gred, gradu, gree), from grd dt 9 gres sus 9 
to step, walk, go* 

Grad{e); 1 retro + grad(e) ; grad + at + ion or at + ion + 
al ; in + gred -f- (i)ent ; 2 gradu + al or al + ly or at + ion or 
ate; 3 de + gree. Con, di, e, in, pro, trans + gr ess ; ay, 
trans -f gress -f- or ; ay,* di, pro, re, retro, trans + gress + 
ion ; ay, di, pro + gress + ive. 

From the derivative dey ra da re, dcg ra da tus, come de 
+ grad(e) ; de-\-gradat-\-ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Grade, a step in rank. 2 Ingredient, that 
which enters into a compound. 3 Graduate, one elevated to a ^rade or . 
degree. 4 Aggression, the (70% out towards, or /o, in hostility. 

Grat,* (gratu, grati, grac, gre), from grdtus, pleasing 1 , 
deserving thanks, thankful ; grd Us, by favor, without reward, 

Grat(e)+ful or ful + ly or ful + ness ; in-hgrat(e) ; 
gratu + ti?/ or i^ + ows ; grati -f- ^ Je ; -m + grati + z^cfc 7 
grac(e) ; grac(e) +ful or ful + ly or ful + ness or fess or 
less + ness ; dis + grac(e) ; dis + grac(e) +fid or ful + ly; 
grae -f (i)0ws or (i)o^s + Z?/ or (i)0^s + wess ; a, cfeV -f & 4- 
gre(e) ; a, dis + a + gre(e) + able or able + ness or abl-hy cr 

From the derivative ^ra£ i/z c$ re, ^ratf i^/? ca zto, come 



24 Word-Building. 

grati+fij ; grati+ficat-hion. From the derivative graU 
u Id ri, grat u Id tus, come gratulat + ion or org or (e) ; 
con + gratulat + ion or org or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Disagree, not to accord with or be agree' 

able to. 

Hospit,* (host, hot, ost), from hospes, hds pi tis, one who 
entertains, or a guest, 

Hospit + al l or al + fcY# 2 or able ; host ; 3 host + ess ; host 

-\-el or host + el + rg—hot + el ; host-\-l + er=ost + l-\-er. z 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Hospital, a building for guests, sick people. 
2 Hospitality, the generous entertainment of guests. 3 IZos^, the ^wfer- 
tainer. Hostler, now 4 ostler; once the Men-keeper, now the groom. 

Lesson XI. 

Ject* ? (jet, Jut), from jdc e re, jdc tus, to lay, throw, cast. 

^Z>, 0, iw, iWer, oZ>, jpro, re, sub+ject; de, e, in, inter, 
ob, pro, re, sub+ject + ionj ad, ob, sub+ject + ive; 1 ob, pro 
+ject~\~or; ob +ject + ion + able ; ab+ject + lg or ness; de 
+ject + £6? or ed + Zy or e<i + ness; 2 jef / 3 jet + (t)y/ 4 J w£. 

From the derivative /# ce re, to lie, we have ad +jac + e^ 
or ency ; circum, super -i-jac + ent. From the derivatives 
conjic e re, conjee tus, and ejac u Id ri, ejac u Id his, we 
have con +jectur + al or al -f ly or (e) ; 5 e +jaculat + i(m 6 or 
org or (e). 

Hints for the Pupil. — 1 Subjective, of the mind, or the internal 
world, in distinction from objective, of the external world. 2 Dejectcd- 
ness, state of being cast down. 3 Jet, a throwing, or that thrown, forth. 
4 Jetty, a projection, as a wharf. 5 Conjecture, to ^row together, or 
throw out, as a guess, 6 Ejaculation, uttered, or thrown out, sud- 
denly. 



Elementary English. 25 

Jung", Juncf «* Junctur, (join, joint, jointur), from jun>- 
ge re, junc tus, to bind, connect, unite. 

Join ; join + er ; ad, con, dis, en, re, sub +join ; joint ; 
joint + ly. Junct + ion ; con, dis, in + junct + ion ; 1 con, 
dis, sub -f junct + ive or ive + ly. <Tunctur(e) ; con, dis-h 
junctur (e) ; jointur (e). 

From ju gd re, ju gd tus, derived from jugum, a yoke, we 
get con +jug + aP or al + ly or al + ity ; con, sub -f jug at -f- 
ion or (e) 3 . 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Injunction, an enjoining, a mandate. * Con- 
jugal, pertaining to those joined in marriage. 8 Subjugate, literally, to 
cause to 2?ass under the jugum, or yoke. 

Jur,* Jurat, from jura re, jura tus, to take an oath, 
make oath. 

Ab, ad, con, per+jur(e) ^jur-i-y 1 or or; per+jur + y 
or or; con+jur + or' 2 or er; 3 ab, ad, con + jurat + ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Jury— what is administered to a jury ? 
2 Conjuror, one bound to others by an oa^. 3 Conjurer, a juggler, one 
who practises magic arts. 

Lessor XII. 

To the Teacher. — Do not let the pupil overlook the common meta- 
phorical uses of words. Have him see that in saying, Collect your 
thoughts, Recall or recollect what he said, Outline the lesson, you are 
using the words collect, recall, recollect, and outline not literally j but 
figuratively, metaphorically. 

L.at,* see Fer.* 

Lteg 9 * Legat, from le gd re, le gd tus, to bring forward, to 
send on an embassy, to depute, to leave by will. 

Al + leg(e). Legat + ee or (e) ; leg + acy; 1 legat + ion; 
al, de -f legat + ion ; de + legat(e) ; 2 re + legat -f- ion or (e) . 3 



26 Word- Building. 

Helps for the Pupil. — l Legacy, that left by will. 2 Delegate, one 
deputed or appointed. 3 Relegate, to send back. 

Leg, Lect,* Lectur, (£tgr, Zess),, from leg ere 9 leetus^ to 
read, gather, choose. 

-Lee/ + £#Ze or ifo7 + ity or i<m/ x il + to/ + fc#fe or ibil + i£y ; 
col + leg(e); 2 e, in + e + leg -\- ance or ant/ 3 leg + end* or 
ew<# + ary ; e, 5 iw + e, intel -f Zigr + ^fe or ifo7 + i£# ; di, 6 ^^ 
intel -\-lig-\-ent or £?Z6'0 or ent + ly. Col, dia, 7 e, intel? neg, 
re + col, se + lect; col, e, pre + di* re 4- col, se + lect + ion ; 
e, col + led + or; Zess + on. Leetur(e) ; lectur + er; leetur(e) 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Legion, a chosen body of men. 2 College, 
a collection of persons, a seminary. 3 Elegant — what would well-chosen 
manners or style be ? 4 Legend, once, that appointed to be read ; 
now, a mythical story. 5 Eligible, qualified to be chosen. 6 Diligent, 
opposed to negligent; painstaking in the matter chosen. ''Dialect, 
language read and spoken throughout a limited region. 8 Intellect, 
the faculty of choosing, distinguishing, knowing. 9 Predilection, a 
bias disposing one to a certain choice. 

Liner,* from li ber, free, frank, acting at one's pleasure. 

Liber + al or al + ly or al-hity or al + ism or al + izej il-h 
liber + al or al + z7y. 

From the derivative noun fo'S er tas, lib er td tis, we have 
libert + y or ine 1 or in'+ism. From the derivative verb lib- 
e rd re, lib e rd tus, come liberat + ion or or or (e) ; de -f 
Jiver / 2 sfe + W«?er 4- £r or <mc# or y. 

Helps for the Pupil. — l Libertine, one whose liberty has become 
mere license. 2 Deliver, to /ree from. 

.Lin,* from ZS man, I'm e a, flax, thread. 

Lin,(e) ; lin + en* or £;. a lin(e)+ar or 0*70 8 or tfZ or (a) 
mer^ ; M»(n) + gtf; 4 /m + seed. 



Elementary English. 27 

From de lin e a re, de lin e a tus, a derivative from linea, 
we have de + lineat + or or ion or (e). 5 

Kelps for the Pupil. — 1 Linen is made of what ? and 2 lint of what ? 
3 Lineage, line of descent. 4 Linnets feed on what ? b Delineate, to 
outline. 

loiter,* from lit e ra 9 a letter. 

Liter + al 1 or al + ly or ary. 2 

From the derivative adj. lit era tus come literat(e) ; $7 

+ literat(e) ; il + literat(e) + ly or wess; il + litera + cy ; 
al -\- liter at + ion 3 or im From the derivative ^Y 6 m M to 
comes liter atur(e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — i Literal, according to the letter. 2 2>*Y- 
erary, pertaining-. to letters or literature. 3 Alliteration, repetition of 
the ,S6/,me Z«#«r at the beginning of successive words. 

Lessor XIII. 

Loe,* Locat, (foco, lien), from Zo ca re, £o ca £?/s, to place, 
arrange. 

Loc + al or al + ize or al + ity ; loco + mot (see root, Les- 
son XVI. )+ £ow * or mot + ive; lieu + ten (see root^ Lesson 
XXVIII.) -fawtf or ten-rancy. Locat + ion or (e) ; col, dis 
■\-locat-\-ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Locomotion, movement from place to place. 

Loqu,* Locut, from 16 qui, lo cu tus, to speak, to talk. 

JLoqu + acious or ac + ity j 1 col, ob, soli (see root, Lesson 
XXII. ) + loqu + y ; e, magni + loqu + ent or ence ; col-h 
loqu + (i)al or (\)al-\-ly; soli + loqu + ize ;' z ventri {venter, 
belly) + loqu + ist 3 or ism. Circum -f- locut + ^o% / e + £©c^£ 
+ &07& or ion + ar# or ion + is£. 



28 Word-Building. 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Loquacity, talkativeness. 2 Soliloquize, to 
talk alone and to one's self. 3 Ventriloquist, one making his voice 
seem to come from some other than its real source. 

Liiid,* Lus, from lu de re, lu sus, to play, laugh at, sport with. 

Al, 1 de, 2 e, inter, pre + lud(<d). Al, col, 2 de, e, iV -Vlus + 
ion or ive or ive + ly. 

From the derivative adj. lu di crus, we have ludi + (cr) ous 
or (cr) ous + ly or (cr)ous-{-ness. 

Helps for the Pupil. — x Allude, to hint at, refer to, not to speak 
fully of. 2 Delude, to play with in order to deceive. In 3 collusion, 
men play into each other's hands. 4 Illusion, a deceptive appearance. 

Magn 9 * (magni), from mag nus, great. 

Magn + anim + ous or anim + Uy ; magn + ate ; magni 

+fy orfl + er or fic + ent or ftc + ent + ly or fic + ence or ^rf#. 
From the derivative majestas come majest + y or ic or 
ic + «Z or ic + al + ly. From the derivatives ma gis ter, mag 
istrdtus, come magister + (\)al or (i)al + ly ; master; 
master + ly or ful or syfo^? or less or 3/ ; magistrates) ; 
magistra -f £?/. 

Man,* (manu, main), from mc£ ?ms, the hand. 

Man + ag(e) ; man-hag(e) -\-ment or ag(e)+able ; man 
+ (a)cfe (dim. of manica, a glove) or ceuvre 1 or ure; 2 M, 
quadru (four) + man + ous ; manu -j- a? or #? + Z^/ y mann 
+fact + ory ; manu+factur + er or faetur(e) ; manu + 
mit 3 (see root, Lesson XV.) or miss -[-ion or script (see 
root, Lesson XXL) ; a + manu + ens + (is) (L.) ; main-i- 
tain 4 (see root, Lesson XXVIII.) or tain -{-able or £aiw 
-J-gr or ten + ance. 

From the derivative manure (Fr.), we have man(ii)-\-er 
or er + ly or er\li -r-ness* or er + ism j Q un + man(n) + er + 



Elementary English. 29 

ly or er + Ii + ness. From the derivative ernan cipdre, 
e man cipd tus, we have e 4- man + cipat -f i'oft or cipat + or 
or cipat(e). Prom the derivative ma %?/p % &2 fo'm we get 
maiM + (pulat)-Mo^ or (pulat)-b or or (pulat)(e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Manoeuvre and 2 manure are the same word, 
and = work by the hand. The chief work on the farm is to fertilize ; 
hence it came to be called to manure, and the word was then trans- 
ferred as a noun to the fertilizer. 3 Manumit, to send from one's 
hand a slave, to release, 4 Maintain, to hold by the hand, to support. 
5 Mannerliness, civil manners. 6 Mannerism, peculiar style, or man- 
ner, offensively prominent. 



Lesson - XIV. 

Mar,* (mart), from ma re, the sea. 

Mar + iw# or in -f er ; to&, trans, ultra + m«r 4- ^0 / 

mari -f ^'we. 

Mater 9 * (matr, matri), from ma £er, m«£ fris, mother. 

Mater (n) -f a/ or ^z/ ; matr + isc or o% or o^ + Z?/ or o% -j- 
i^e; matri + mony or moni-\-al. 

From the derivative materia, matter, we get materi + 
al or al~\-ly or al + ity or al + ist or al + ist + ic or al + ism; l 
mat(t) +er 2 or er -f less. 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Materialism, a doctrine attaching undue 
importance to matter. 2 Matter, the substance, and so, as it were, the 
mother of material things. 

Medi 9 * from me di us, middle. 

Medi-{- (um) (L.) or al or ocr(e) or ocr~\-ity or e?; (mvum, 
age) +$Z or tor (terra, earth) -t-an-hean. 1 

From me rfi # re, me ^£ a tus, we get mediat + or 2 or io?a 



30 Word- Building. 

or on+al or (e) ; im,* inter -f mediat(e) ; im, inter + 

mediat(e) + /y. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Mediterranean — the sea named from its 
lying between what ? 2 Mediator, one coming in between to reconcile, 
3 im, the negative. 

Merits from mens, men Us, the mind. 

Ment + al or al + ly; de + ment-+ ed. 

Ulerc,* (merci, merch, market), from mer ed ri 9 mer cd* 
tus, to trade. 

Mere + er or ant -f ife ,,' com + merc(e) ; Merc + ur + y 1 ; 
com + merci +al or aZ + ly ; mer eh + #?&£ or and (=ant) 4- ^ 
or ant -{-able; market (from mer cat, the p.p. root); 
market + a&fe. 

Helps for the Pupil. — x Mercury, the god of £ra<#e. 

ftlerg,* Hers, from merge re, mersus, to plunge into, to 
sink. 

Merg(e) ; 6, im, sub + merg(e) ; e -\- merg + ent or ewce or 
ency; 1 sub + merg + ence. E, im, sub -\- mers + ion ; im, 
sub f merse(e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Emergency, a pressing necessity suddenly 
arising. 

Lessor XV. 

Migr ? * Migrat, from mi grd re, mi grd tus, to go from place 
to place. 

Migr + ant; e, im-\-migr-\-ant. Migrate- ion or ory 
(birds) or (e) ; e, im, trans + migrate- ion or (e). 

Mir,* Mirat, (mira, ?nirr), from mirdri, mirdtus, to 
look at, wonder or marvel at. 

Mir + age; 1 ad + mir + able* or abl + y or er or tug or ^</ 



Elementary English. 31 

+ ly ; mira-Ycle (= culum) or cul-Vous or cul + ous + ly; 
mirr + or. Ad + mirat -f ion. 

The Fr. merveille, from the derivative wzi rah i lis, gives 
us maw + el or el + ous or el + ous + ly or el + ous + ness. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Mirage — what is the optical illusion, called 
mirage, which causes wonder ? 2 Admirable, the mere wonder passing 
now into approbation. . 

Milt,* Miss, (mit, mis), from mit te re, mis sus, to send, cast, 
throw, let go. 

Ad, re + mitt + ance ; re-hmitt + ent 1 or er ; inter + mitt 
+ ent* or ing + ly; com + mitt + ee or al ; ad, com, e, inter, 
manu, o, per, re, sub, trans + mit. Miss + ive or al 3 or He 4 
or iow or ion -f #ry ; r# + miss ; re + miss 4- wess / 5 ad, com, 
e, inter, manu,o, per, re, sub, trans + miss + ion ; ad, per, 
trans + miss + ible ; per, sub -\- miss -\- ive ; com + miss -{-ion 
+ er ; com, e + miss + ary ; com + pro, de, pre, pro,* sur + 
mis(e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Remittent, slackening in effort. 2 Inter- 
mittent, periodic in effort. s Missal, the mass- book — mass from missa 
est (the congregation is dismissed), with which words the service closes. 
4 Missile, that thrown. 5 Remissness, slackness. 6 Promise, to put, or 
send forth, a binding declaration. 

Mok,* Monil, (monu), from mo nere, man i tus, to advise, 
remind, warn. 

A d + mow + isA ; sum + iw,o^ / * sum + mow + #r or s ; 

momi + ment 2 or ment-\-al. Monit + or or io% or ory or 
or + ship ; ad, pre -i- monit + ion or ive or orz/. 

Helps for the Pupil. — x Summon, to warn to appear. 2 Monument^ 
that by which people are reminded of something. 



33 Word-Building. 

Mort,* from mors, mor tis, death. 

Mort + al or al + ity or al + ly or main 1 or gage 2 ; im + 
mort + al or al + ize or al + ity. 

From the derivative mor tifi cd re, mor tifi cd tus, come 
mortl +fy or flcat + ion \ 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Mortmain, property passing to the Church 
was inalienable, passed, as it were, into the hands of a dead man. 
2 Mortgage, land held by mortgage became lost, or dead, to the mort- 
gagor, on breach of the condition. 3 Mortification, the metaphorical 
meaning is death of pride. 

Lessor XVI. 

To the Teacher. — For oral recitation, a Latin root-word, movere, 
for instance, may be put on the board. Different pupils may name the 
several root-forms from this. These may be written in a column 
beneath. Other pupils may be asked to give the prefixes and the suf- 
fixes that unite with each root-form. Write the prefixes in a column 
to the left of the root-form and the suffixes in a column to the right, 
thus :— 

r able 

im 1 -** I abl + y 

[ Mov ' 
re 



e 

com 

joro 



Mot 



er 

[ er 

j ion 

j ive 



re J I or, etc. 

etc. 

Then let other pupils combine these into words, explain the mean- 
ing of each prefix, root-form, and suffix, and illustrate the use of the 
words which they compose. 

Mov, Mot,* (mo), from mo ve re, mo tus, to move. 

Mov + er or able or abl + y; im + mov + able or abl + y; 



Elementary English. 33 

re + mov + al or able or ed + ness or (e) ; mov(e) ; mov(e) 
-f w«0w£. Mot -f io^ or 0?' or ive; 1 e -f mo£ + iow 2 or ion 4- 
#/ or ive; pro + mot + ion or ive or er; ^r^ re + mot(e) ; 
com + niof + ion ; mo -f M0w£ 3 or wew/ + an/ or ment + Zy or 
ment + ous 4 or ment + ous + ly or m^ + (um) (L.) ; mo + b 
(the J from the ending bilis or fo7e in mobilis, mobile, easily 
moved). 

Helps for the Pupil. — l Motive, a reason for change of purpose, for 
movement. 2 Emotion, movement, agitation, of the feelings ; the feel- 
ing itself. a 'Moment, an instant of time; of importance. * Moment- 
ous, of moving force. 

Mult* or Mulfi, from mitt tus, many. 

Multi + tude or tud+ (in) +ous or ply (see Lesson XX. for 
the four roots ply, plic, pie, pli) or plic + ity or pie or pli 
+ er or plic + and or plieat + ion or form (shape or form) 
or form + z^/ or /ar + (i)ous. 

Mun,* (mon, muni), from mi£ w«t$, mtt n# ris, a duty, an 
office, a gift. 

Im + mtm 4- tYy ; * com -f mtm + ?7y 2 or ist or £0% or (e) ; 
corn + mon ; z com + mon + er or Z?/ or al + ty or ness or s; 
muni +ftc + £ft£ 4 or fie + ^ -f- ?y or /&c+ 0^C£. 

From the derivatives com mu ni cd re, com mu ni cd tus? 
and re mu ne rd ri, re mu ne rd tus, we have com + munie -h 
ant or able; com + munieat + ion or ive or (e) ; ex + com 
-{- munieat -\- ion or (e); re + muner + able ; re + muner at 
+ ion b or we or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — J Immunity, exemption from duty. 2 Cow- 
munity, all sharing. 3 Common, shared by a^. 4 Munificent, making 
lavish gifts. 5 Remuneration, giving, or tfA#£ given, in return, 



3 4 Word-Building. 

Nasc, Wat,* Watur, from nds ci, nd tus, to be born, 

Nasc + ent or ency. l Nat + al or ion 2 or ion + #Z or ion -f 
al + ity or ion + al + ize or we or iv + ity; in, cog + nat 2 (e) 
Natur + al or al + ly or al + ness or al + ize or al + ist or «Z + 
iz + at + ion or (e) ; 4 wrc, preter, super -{- natur + al. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ' Nascency, state of foWA. Etymologically, 
but not in fact, 2 nation names a people of the same birth or stock. 
8 Cognate, bom with one. 4 Nature, etymologically, the idea of birth 
predominates. 

Nav,* from nd vis, ship. 

Nav (e); ' nav + al or «/. (For navigate, etc.,, see Ag.) 
From the derivatives %#?£ ^' cws and nau se d re, nau se d- 

tus, we have naut + ic + al or ic + al + ly; nause + ous or (a) ; 2 

nauseat + ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — l Nave, the body of the church, likened to a 
ship. 2 Nausea, sea-sickness — appropriate ? 

Lessor XVII. 

Wot,* from nos ce re, no tus, or gnos ce re, gno tus, to know. 

Not (e); J not-{-er or ed or ice or ice + able or ww or i<m + 
#Z or ori + ous.* 

Prom the derivative %o tifi cd re, no tifi cd tus, to make 
known, we have noti+fy or ficat + ion. From ig no rd re, 
not to know, we have i (= in) + gnor + ant or ance or 
amus 3 or (e). From the derivatives no hi lis, ig no hi lis, we 
have no + ble* or bil + ity or bl + y or ble + ness; i + gno + 
He or 5/ +2/ or ble + ness. From no tare, notdtus, come 
not -V able or abl + y or abil + ity; notat + ion; de, con + 
not(§) ; #%, d^ c(m +■ notat + /o/& ; # /& + no£a£(e), From 



Elementary English. 35 

cog nos ce re, cog ni tus, we have co + gniz + ance or ant or 
able ; co + gnit -\- ion ; re + co + gniz + ance or a&Ze or (e) ; 
re + co + gnit + ion; in + co -\- gnit + (o) (It.). 

Helps for the Pupil. — x Note, a mark by which a thing is known. 
2 Notorious, with us, known for 6a$ qualities. 3 Ignoramus, a block- 
head ; but really, amus is the 1st per. plu. indie, ending of L. verb ; 
hence ignoramus = we are ignorant. 4 Noble, known for good qualities. 

jtfumer,* Numeral, (number), from nu me rd re 9 nu me- 

rd tus, to count, to number. 

Numer + al or al + ly or ous or ous + ly or ous + ness or ic 
+ al or ic + al + ly; in + numer + able ; super + numer + 
ary ; 1 number ; number .+ #r or fess. Numerat + iflft or 
or or (e); e + numerat + ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — J Supernumerary, one in excess. 

Jtfunci,* Nunciat, (nounc), from wtm ct a re, wim ci <$ £ ws, 
to proclaim, report. 

Nunei J r{o l ) (It.); an, de,* e, pro, 3 re + nounc(e); an, 
de, e + nounc(e) + ment ; pro + nounc(e) + able ; an, e, re + 
nunciat -f ion or (e) ; pro + nunciat + ion ; de + nunciat 
-\-ion or or or on/. 

Helps for the Pupil.— 1 Nuncio, a papal ambassador. 2 Denounce, 
to proclaim threateningly. 3 Pronounce, to utter or s£?ea& forth. 

Ocul,* from 6c u lus, eye, 

Ocul + ar or ^ or ar + ly ; bin + ocul + ar. 
From the derivative in oc u Id re, in oc u Id tus, we have in 
+ oculat + ion or or or (e). 1 

Helps for the Pupil.— 1 Inoculate, to engraft a bud, or eye, of one 
tree into another. 



36 Word-Building. 



Lesson XVIII. 

Par,* Parat, (ver, pair), from pa rare, pa rdtus, to see, 
to get ready, or make ready. 

Com, pre + par (e); com, in + com, in + se, re, ir + re, se + 
par + able or abl + y; com + par + (is) (Fr.) +on; se, dis 
+ se + ver ; se, dis + se + ver + ance ; se + ver + al 1 or al + 
ly ; re + pair. Pre, re, se+ parat -\- ion ; com -\- par at -\- 
ive; pre+parat + ory ; ap + parat + (us) (L.). 

Helps for the Pupil.— 1 Several, once, many taken separately ; now, 
not necessarily one by one. 

Pari * from Fr. parler, to talk. 

Parl + ance or or l or (m)ment 2 or (m)ment ■ + ary or 
(lament + ari + an or ey.* 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Parlor, the room for talk. 2 Parliament, 
talking, and then a ^?tee for it. ' 3 Parley, a conference. 

Part,* {port, parti, par, pars), from pars, partis, a 
'piece, portion ? share. 

Part ; a, counter + part ; partly or ly ; a, de, com-\- 
part + ment; port + ion or ion + fes ; ap -\-port + 2*0^ or ion 

-{-ment ; pro + port + ion 1 or ion + al or ion + able ; parti -f 
a/ 2 or al + ly or al + ity or cfe or cul + ar or cul + ar + ize or 
cul + ar + ity; par -{-eel; pars(e).* 

From jtf#r ^ re, jtfar £& ^s, to divide, come partit 4- «0/& or 
^0 or ive + ly ; de, im+part; de+part + ure ; partner 
er=partit + ion + er ; partn + er + ship. (For participate, 
etc., see Cap.) 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Proportion, relation between parts, harmoni- 
ous arrangement of parts, etc. 2 Partial, appertaining to a part in 
distinction from the whole. 3 Parse, to tell the parts of speech. 



Elementary English. 37 

Past,* Pastwr, from pds ci, pas tus 9 to feed. 

JPast + or 1 or or + al or or + ship or or + ate; re-}- past. 9 
I*astur(e) ; pastur + age or #r. 

Helps for the Pupil. — l Pastor, a shepherd, real or metaphorical. 
2 Repast, a raeaZ, /oocZ. 

Pat, Pa§§,* (pati), from 2?^ ££ ^ *> 2*^s i?ws, to suffer. 

Com, * w& + com -{-pat + ^0 or ^5^7 + ity or iSZ + y ; pati + 
ent 2 or ent + ly or ence ; im -{- pati + ent or ent + ly or ence. 
JPass + ion or tvtf or io?2 -\-ate; im+pass + ive or ion + ed ; 3 
com + pass + ion or ion + ate or ion + ate + ly. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Compatible, agreeing with each other, each 
suffering the other. 2 Patient, suffering, the one suffering, but with- 
out murmur. 3 Impassioned, the w?z adding force, intensity. 

floater,* (patr, patri), from pa £ er, pa £ WSj father ; pa tri a 9 
father-land. 

P^ef + (n)a? or (n)ity ; patr + on or on -{-age or on + ize 
or ow + ess ; patri + wzowy ; patri + 0^ or 0^ + «c or 0^ + ism 
or ot + ic + al-\- ly ; com + patri + 0^; ' ex + patri + at + ion 
or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Compatriot, a fellow-countryman. 

Lessor XIX. 

To the Teacher.— In reviews you may give Latin root-words, and 
require pupils to write or give all the root-forms from these, used in 
English, with one or more words in which each root-form is found. 

The teacher will see that a great variety in manner of recitation may 
easily be devised. 

Ped,* from pes, pe dis 9 foot. 

Ved + al or estr-\-ian or est + al; hi, quadru+ped; 
hi, quadru+ped + al. 



38 Word- Building. 

From the derivatives expe di re, expe di tus, to free from, 
to make easy, and impe dire, impe ditus, we get ex+pedi 
+ ent or ency ; ex+pedit + ion or (i)ous + ly; 1 im+ped(e) ; 
im +pedi '+ ment. 2 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Expeditiously, with hurrying feet. 2 Im- 
pediment, literally, something by which the feet are obstructed; how 
used metaphorically? 

Pell,* Puis, (pelf pelt), from pel le re, pul sus, to drive, push, 
strike. 

Pro + pell + er; com, dis, ex, im, pro, re -{-pel. Puls(e); 1 
im, r0+iw£s(e); com, ex, im, pro, re + puis + ion or ive; 
pelt. 2 

From the derivative pul sd re, pul sd tus, we have pulsat 
+ ion or ive or ory or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Pulse, the blood driven in beats. 2 Pelt, to 

Pend,* Pens, from pen de re, pen sus, to hang, rely upon. 

Ap, de, im, sns+pend ; pend + ant or ent or w/+(um) 
(L.) or ul + ous ; de, in + de + pend + ent or ence ; ap+pend 
+ age or i# ; sus +pend -\-er + s. Pens + He ; sus +pens + 
ion or (e). 

Pend,* Pens, (pendi), from pendere, pen sus, to weigh 
out, consider, pay out. 

Com, ex, s ( — dis), sti (slips, a gift given in small coin) + 
pend; com + pendi + (urn l ) (L.) or ous or ous + ly; sti + 
pendi + ary. Dis, 2 ex 3 -fpefis(e) ; ex +pens + ii>0 or ive + fo/ 
or ive + ness ; pens + ion or ion + er or ive 4 or ive + ly. 

From the derivatives com pen sd re, com pen sd tus, and 
dis pen sd re, dis pen sd tus, we get com+pensat + ion or 



Elementary English. 39 

(e) ; re 4- com + pens(e) ; dis+pens + er or fl&fe or able + ness 
or ar^/ ; 5 in + ^'s +peais + able or ##Z# + wess ; dis -{-pensat 
+ iow 6 or ive or ory. 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Compendium, an abridgment. 2 Dispense, 
to dea£ #w£ in portions; what is it to dispense with ? 3 Expense, liter- 
ally, weighed out, as gold still is in the Bank of England ; cost. 
4 Pensive, thoughtful, considering. 5 Dispensary — place where what is 
done ? 6 Dispensation, the act of, or the government, meting out. 

Pet,* Petit, (petu, peat), from pet ere petitus,to ask, to 
seek, to rush at, to fiy to. 

Com +pet(e) ; com -\-pet + ent or ence ; in + com -{-pet + ent 
or ence ; im -{- pet + (us) (L.); centri (center) +pet + alj im 
+petu + ous or ous + ly or ous + ness or os + ity ; re -Y peat ; 
re-\-peat + er or ^ or ed + ly. Petit + ion or ion-{-er or 
iow + 077/ ; ^ow, re -{-petit + z'(m ; com -{-petit + or or ^0 ; ajtf 
+^?e£i£(e). 

Lessor XX. 

Plet,* found in compounds of pie re, to fill. 

Com, de, 1 in + com, re 2 + plet(e) ; com, in-\-com-\~plet(e) 
+ ly or ness ; com, de, in -{-com, re -{- plet -{- ion ; ex -{-plet -Y 
ive.* 

Helps for the Pupil. — Note the force of de and re in 1 deplete and 
* replete. 3 Expletive, used to fill out. 

Pile,* Plieat, or Plicit, (#£e, j?£^ ply, ploy, play, pleoc), 
from pli cd re, pli cd tus, to fold, bend, turn. 

Com, du, multi, sim 1 (= semel, once) +plic + it y ; ac~{- 
com -{-plic(e) ; sim, sup +ple ; sim + pli +fy ; pli -{-ant or 
able or ancy or abil + ity or able + ness ; ply ; ap, com, im, 
mis + ap, multi, re + ply; 2 em -{-ploy ; 3 em -{- ploy -{- er or 



40 Word- Building. 

raent ; de-hplou; dis -{- play; 4 com, du, multi + plex. 

Ex, b im 6 +plicit ; ex, im + plicit + ly or ness. Ap, du, im, 
mis + ap, multi, re, sup+plicat + ion ; 7 com, du, ex, im, 
sup+plicat(e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — i Simplicity, literally, state of being single, 
uncombined, without fold. How does it get its meaning of absence of 
cunning, or of sagacity ? How does duplicity mean cunning, deceit? 
2 Reply — what is returned in a reply ? 3 Employ, to involve, infold, by 
using, occupying. 4 Display, to unfold, as a flag, to show. 5 Explicit, 
unfolded, and hence distinctly seen ; * implicit, folded in, the meaning 
only implied. 7 Supplication, the leg from the knee down bent under 
in kneeling in prayer. 

Pon,* Posit, Postur, (pound, post), from pone re, pos- 
it us, to place. 

Post+pon(e); post + pon(e) + ment j com, de, ex, op + 
pon + ent; com, ex, pro -f pound. De + posit ; posit + ion 
or ive 1 or ive + ness or iv + ist; ap, com, op-}-posit(e); ap, 
com, de, de + com, dis, ex, im, inter, juxta, op, pre, pro, 
sup, trans + posit + ion ; com, de, ex + posit + or ; de + posit 
+ ory 2 or ary ; 3 post ; 4 post + al or age ; com, im -{-post ; 
im -{-post -\- or 5 or ure. JPostur(e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — l Positive, placed, fixed, in opinion. 2 Depos- 
itory, the place where things are placed; 3 depositary, the one with 
whom. 4 Post, a stake fixed in the ground; a military station; a 
position of duty. How a conveyance for letters? 6 Impostor, one 
who imposes upon others, deceives them. 

Port,* Portal, from porta re, porta tus, to carry, convey, 
bear along. 

JPort; 1 com, de, dis, ex, im, s ( — dis), sup, pur* trans + 
port; port-]- able or able + ness or er or er + age or ly or 
lioness; ex, im, re, sup + port + er or able; im+port-\r 



Elementary English, 41 

ant 2 or ance; de+port + ment ; de, ex, im, trans -Yportat 

+ ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Port, carriage of the body. 2 Purport, mean- 
ing carried, tenor of. 3 Important, carrying something of weight, or 
importance, within. 

Port,* ( porch), from por ta, a gate or door. 

Port ; 1 port + al or er or r + ess or ic + (o) (It) ; porch. 
Helps for the Pupil. — ' Port, opening, as in port-hole. 



Lesson XXI. 

Pos,* from Fr. poser, to place ; Low Latin, pan sd re. 

I*os(e) (attitude); com, de, ex, im, inter, op, pro, pur, 
re, sup, trans +pos(e); com+pos + er or ure or ed + ly or 
ed + ness; pro+pos + al ; ex + pos -f ure. 

Prim, * (prin, pri), from pri mus, first. 

I*rini(e); 1 prim + er or al or ary or it + ive or ev (mvum, 
age) + al ; prin + cip + fe or dp + $Z or cijp -hal + ly or cip -f 
al-Vity or cip + al + ship; prin 2 + c(e) (c(e) from capere, to 
take) ; prm + c(e) + /y or c(e) + &m or c + 655 ; i>W + or 
(ending of the L. comparative) or or + itv or ory. z 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Prime, first in quality. ' 2 Prince, the prin- 
cipal person. 3 Priory, the house presided over by a prior. 

Sacr,* (sacri, seer at), from sa crave, sacrdtus, to set 
apart as sacred, to dedicate. 

Sacr 4- ed or #<i + ly or e^ + ness ; sacr(&) -f 7^0^ or ment 
-\-al ; sacri +ftc-\-(i)al ov ftc(e); sacri + leg + (i)ous or leg 
+ (i)otts-\-lyorleg(e). Ex -t-ecr(=secr— sacr) + able; 1 ex-}- 



42 Word-Building. 

ecrat(=secrat)+ion or (e) ; con, de + secrat + ion or or 
or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — } Execrable, worthy of the curse pronounced 
upon things not sacred, unholy. 

Sci,* from sci re, sci tus, to know. 

Sci + ence or ent(i) +fic or ent(i) +fic + al or ent(i) +fic + al 
+ ly ; con, pre + sci -{- ence ; 1 con + sci + ous or ous + ness ; 2 
con + sci + ent+(i)ous* or ent + (i)ous + ly or 0/^+ (i)ows-j- 
fttfss; omni(sill)+sci + ent or 0^00; un + con + sci + ous oy 
oi(s + ness or. ly. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Prescience, a knowing beforehand, fore- 
knowledge. 2 Consciousness, a knowing with one's self. 3 Conscien- 
tious, governed by conscience, behaving by the rules of right. 

§crit>,* Script, Scriptur, (scriv, scrip), from scribe re 
scrip tus 9 to write. 

Scrib(e) ; a, circurn, de, in, pre, pro, sub, super, trans + 
scrib(e); sub + scrib + er ; scrib + (b)le or (b)l + er; scriv 
-\-en-\-er. 1 Script; con, manu, non + de, post, re, tran + 
script; a, circum, con, de, in, pre, pro, sub, super, tran 
-f script + ion ; de, pre, pro + script + ive ; scrip* Script- 
wr(e); scripture al. 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Scrivener, once, a money lender ; now, one 
who draws contracts and other writings. 

Sent,* Sens, (senti, sensu), from sen tire, sensus, to feel, 
think, perceive. 

As, con, dis, re + sent; dis + sent + er ; s(c)ent ; l sent 
+ ence; 2 senti-ent + (i)ous 3 or ent + (i)ous + ly ; re -{-sent 
+ment or fulj* senti + eni or merit or ment + al or ment 
+ al + ism ; pre + sewtfi + w^. Sens(e) ; sews(e) + fess or 



Elementary English. 43 

less + ly; sens + ible or ibl + y or ibil + ity ; non + sens(e) ; 

wo^ + sens + io + $? / sensu + #Z or a? + itfy or ous or o^s + Z?/. 

From the derivative adjs. sen sd tus and sensitif, we 

have sensat + ion or ion + al or ion + al + ly ; sensit + ive or 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Scent, something perceived by the nose. 
2 Sentence, containing a thought. 3 Sententious, weighty with thought. 
4 Resentful, literally, /wW of the feeling toward one which he has 
toward you ; now, full of indignation, anger. 



Lessok XXII. 

Sequ 9 * §ecut 9 (sec, sequi, su, sect, suit), from se qui, se c«2- 
tus, to follow. 

Sequ + el or ent or ence ; con + sequ + ent or ence or enti- 
ty ; sub + sequ + ent or ent + ly ; sec + ond l ( = und, the ge- 
rundive suffix = the pres. part.) or ond + ary or ond + ari + ty 
or ond + ly ; ob + sequi -{- es or o^s 2 or ous + ly ; su(e) ; en, 
pur + su(e) ; jtmr -f su + #?^ or ance or er. Per,, jt?ro + secut 
+ ion or or or (e) ; con + secut + ion or ive or ive + ly ; ex 
■\-ecut (— secut) + ion or ive or ion + er or or or r + icc; 
sect ; 3 sec£ + ary or an + # w or ari + an+ ism ; suit ; suit 
+ able* or able -hness or or or (e) ; 5 pur + suit. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Second, next after first, called second be- 
cause it follows the first. 2 Obsequious, submissively following the 
will of another. 3 Sect, followers of some one. 4 Suitable, follows 
the style of, adapted to. 5 Suite of rooms ; a train of followers, 

Sol,* (soli), from so foes, alone, 

/$oZ(e); sol(e) + ty ; sol+(o) (It.); soli + loqu + y or loqu 
+ ize ; soli + tude. 
From soli tas come solit + ary or ari + ly. From the 



44 Word-Building. 

derivative des o Id re, des o Id tus, we have de -f solat(e) + ly 
or ness ; de + solat + ion or (e). 

Spec,* or Spic, Spect, (spici, sped, spy, spi), from spec 
(or spic)e re, spec tus, to look at, 

Au ( — av, from avis, bird) + s^>ic + es ; 1 de-{- spic + aSfe 2 
or abl + y ; spic(e) ; 3 su i- spic + ion ; * su, au, in+au + 
spici + ous b or ous + ly; speci + al or (ms c or al + ty or 
0s 3 or (e); 3 e + speci + al; sped + men; spy; e + spy; 
e + spi + ^ or on + $#0. -^ , circum, pro, re, retro, su + spect ; 
circum, intro, retro + spect + ion ; intro, pro, re, retro + 
spect + ive ; r e + spect + able 1 or abl + y or abil-rity ov ful 
or ful + ly. 

From the derivatives c<m spic u us, per spic u us, we get 
con, per -\-spicn-\-ous or ous-rly or ous-\-ness ; per + spicu 
+ 2^2/. From the frequentative spec td re, spec td tus, we 
get specta + cle [ — cule) or cle + s; spectat + or ; ez+pect 
( =: spect) ; ex -\-pect + 6m^ ; ££c Spectat + iow ; m + spect ; 
in + spect -\- ion or or or or + ship. From the derivative 
spec ifi cd re, spec ifi cd tus, we get sped -\-fic or fy or fie + 
al or j£c + al + /?/ or ficat -f- iVw. From spec ^ Z$ W, s^£c- 
^ Id tus, to explore, watch, we get speculat -f 20^ or 2V0 or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Auspices, once, omen from the flight of 
birds; under the auspices of— under the patronage of . -Despicable, 
deservedly looked down upon. 3 Spice, 3 species, 3 specie — things of a 
land, or c/ass, have generally like visible forms, hence, on the authority 
of G. P. Marsh, species came to mean kind, class; among the kinds or 
classes of Eastern merchandise were drugs and condiments, hence these 
were called spices ; species is the visible form in distinction from that 
which represents it, hence specie was taken to name gold and silver 
when paper money appeared as their representative. 4 Suspicion, a 
looking askance at, or with mistrust. E 'Auspicious, the omen favorable. 
6 Specious, appearing well, plausible, but the appearance deceptive. 
1 Respectable, literally, worth looking at again. 



Elementary English. 45 



Lessok XXIII. 

Spir,* §pirat 9 {spirit, spright, sprit), from spirdre, spU 
rd tus, to breathe. 

A, con, in, per, re, re -{-in, tran + spir(e) ; ex+pir 
{—spir)(e); 1 a + spir + ant. 2 A, in, per, re, tran + spirat 
+ ion ; spirit; spirit -{-less or eel or ed + ly or ed + ness; 
spright ; spright -{-ly or ful; sprit(e). 

From the derivative spir it u a lis, we have spiritn + al 
or al-\-ly or al + ize or al + ity or al + isrn or al + ist or ows. 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Expire, to breathe out, die. * Aspirant, he 
who pants for something. 

Stru,* Struct, Structur, (stroy), from s£ri2 e re? struc tus, 
to make, build , arrange. 

Cim, 2 wm " + con + stru(e) ; in + stru -f w?#^ 3 or ment + $? 

or ment + al + ly or ment + al + ist or ment + al-\-ity ; de-h 

stroy; 4 de + stroy + er. Con, in, ob-\- struct; con, de, in, 

ob + struct -\- ion or ive or ive + lyj con, in + struct + or. 

Structur(e) ; super + structur(e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Construe, to se£ in order, to translate ; 
2 misconstrue, to S6£ amiss, to misunderstand or misrepresent. 3 /%- 
strument, a machine for making something. 4 Destroy, to unbuild, 
pull down. 

Sum,* Snoipt, (sumptu), from sumere (sub + em ere), 
siimp tus, to arrogate, to take up, to spend. 

As, con, pre, re + sum(e) ; as, con, pre, re, un + as + sum 
+ ing ; con, in + con, pre, re + sum + able; con + sum + er. 
As, con, pre, re + sumpt + ion or ive; sumptu + ous 1 or 
ous + ly or ar?/ ; J9r# + sumptu + ows 2 or ous -f- /?/. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Sumptuous, expensive, luxurious. 2 Pre- 
sumptuous, taking liberties unduly, rashly. 



46 Word-Building. 

Tang, Tact,* (ting, tag, tigu, tain, teg, tegr, tactu, tast), 
from tan ge re, tdc tus, to touch, to reach, to handle. 

Tang + ent or ency or ible or ibl+y or ibil + ity or ent + 
(\)al ; con + ting + ent 1 or ent + ly or ency ; con + tag + flVm 2 
or (i)0ws or (i)(ms + ^£ss; con + tigu + ous 2 or ous + ly or 
(ms + 72655 or ^ ; at + £a£w ; a£ + tain + $6fe 4 or able + ?2£ss 
or ment ; m + tegr + #r ; 5 « n + tegrr + $? or ity . 6 Tac£ ; 7 £ac£ 
+ i7# ; con, in + £ act ; tactu + $? ; tast(e) ; 8 tast(e) + fess or 
fess + ness ; tast(e) +fnl 9 or ful + ly or /W + wess. 

Prom the derivative in te grd re, in te grd tus, come in + 
tegr + ant ; in + tegrat + ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Contingent, touching, resting upon, and so 
dependent. 2 Contagion, transmission of disease by touch or contact. 
3 Contiguous, touching. 4 Attainable, reachable. 5 Integer, untouched, 
whole. 6 Integrity, character untouched, sound. 7 Tact, skill in touch- 
ing, in handling. b Taste, literally, to touch with tongue or palate. 
9 Tasteful, agreeable to our taste (metaphorical ?) for the beautiful. 

Lessor XXIV. 

To the Teacher. — The pupil, made familiar by this work with the 
roots, prefixes, and suffixes used in these lessons, can never go far 
astray in his use of the many English words which they form. Such 
an acquaintance with these words as shall enable him to employ them 
intelligently and correctly is an attainment to be coveted, one worth 
all the labor and pains it costs him and you. We know no better road 
to it than that which, under your direction, he is following. 

Un,* Unit, (uni) 9 from u ni re, u ni tus, to join, make one ; 
u nus, one. 

Un + ion or anim + ous or anim + ity; dis, re + un + 
ion; tri + unie)) 1 un-\-ique; uni + corn (cornu, horn) or 
son (sonus, sound, harmony) or voc (see root below) +al or 
vers {verier e, to turn) + a? or vers + al + ity or vers (e) or 



Elementary English. 47 

form or form + ity or fy. Unit (one) ; unit^y 2 or ari + 

an or (e) ; dis, re + unit(e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Triune, three in one. 2 Unity, oneness. 

lit,* Us, Usiir, (usu), from w £i, w sms, to use. 

Ut + ens (=ent)+il; ut + il + ity or il + ize or £7-M*2 + a£ 
+ ion or il + it + ari + an. Us + able or ##0; per + us + al; 
ab+us + ive or ive + ly ; us(e) ; #5/ ^'s, mis, jP0r + ws(e) ; 
tfs(e) +j%Z or /W + ?# or fess or less + Z^/ J" usu + #? or #Z 
+ ly. Usur + y 2 or er or i + ws. 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Abuse, to use wrongly. 2 Usury, now, un- 
lawful charge for the use of money. 

Vid ? * Vi§, {vey, vie, view), from vi de re, vi sus, to see. 

E, pro + vid + 0ft# or ewtf + 7y or 0ftc<2 ; pro 4- ^ic£ + ent + (i) «/ 
or ent + (i)al + ly ; pru(=pro) + d(=vid)+ent 1 or 6^c# or 
ent + ly ; pur, sur + vey ; pur + vey + or or ance ; sur + vey 
+ or or or + ship. Vis + age 2 or £<m or ion + ary or i5fe or 
ibl + y or or ; a^ re, super + vis(e) ; ad + vis + able 3 or able 
-\-ness or ed + ness or er; pro, re, super + vis + ion ; ad + 
vic(e); view;* view -\- er or less ; re + view ; re-{-view-\-er. 

From the derivative vis i td re, vis i td tus, we get visit ; 
visit + or b or ant ; visitat + ion ; re + visit ; re + visitat -b 
ion. 

Helps for the Pupil. — x Prudent, foreseeing and wise in the use of 
means. 2 Visage, the face, the foo&. 3 Advisable, seen to be the fos£ 
to do. 4 "Rew, that seew. 5 Visitor, one who goes to see. 

Viv,* (t?*), from viv e re, vie tus, to live. 

Viv + id or acious or ac + ity ; re, sur-hviv(e) ; r<3 + i^# 
-f«Z or al + ist; sur + viv+al or or; .vi + flw^+s; 1 co^-f 
t?it; + (i)a7 or (i)al + ity. 



48 Word-Building. 

From the derivatives vi id lis and vie tu d lis, we get vit 
+ al or al + s or al + ly or al + ity ; victu + al + s. From the 
derivative viv ifi care, viv ifi cdtus, we get vivi+fy ; 
vivi +ficat + ion ; re + twv* +fy ; re -f vwi -\-ficat + io». 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Fmftds, things to live on ; now, only food. 

Toe,* {vote, vow), from voac, voc is, voice. 

Voc + al or al + ist or a^ + ^or al+iz + at + ion ; equi, 
uni + voc + al ; voic(e) ; t?oic(e) +fess ; vow -\- el. 

From the derivative verb vo cd re, vo cd tus, to call, we get 
voca + ble 1 or bul + ary ; 2 vocat + ion 3 or ive ; vouch; 
vouch + er ; re, ir + re 4- i^oc + r/We or abl + y ; con, e, in, 
pro, re + vok(e) ; 4 «, £<m, equi, in, pro, re + vocat + ion ; 
ad + voca + cy ; ad, equi + vocat(e) . From vo cif e rd re, 
vo cif e rd tus, we get voci +fer + ous or ous + ly ; voci -f 
ferat + ion or (e). 5 

Helps for the Pupil. — l Vocable, a name, a word. 2 Vocabulary, a> 
Z&/, or collection, of vocables. 2 Vocation, calling, profession. 4 Avo- 
cation, a calling away, or a diversion, from one's vocation. "Vocif- 
erate, to 5£?ea& loudly. 



GKEEK BOOTS, OB STEMS. 
Lessor XXV. 
Graph,* from grdphein, to write. 

Graph -\-ic or ic + al + ly or ifey #^0 (autos, one's own), 
?iYAo (lithos, stone) , photo (phos, photos, light), tele (at a 
distance) + graph; bio (bios, life), geo (ge, earth), litho, 
ortho (orthos, correct), photo, steno (stenos, narrow), tele, 
topo (topos, place), typo (tupos, type) + graph + y ; historio 



Elementary English. 49 

(history), lexico (lexicon), topo, typo + graph + er ; tele + 
graph + ic or ist or er; typo + graph + ic or ic + #Z. 

liOg,* £<ogii, from logos, a word, speech, science, reason* 

log? + ic or /<? + al or «'c + al-\~ly or fo + &Vm ; Zogr + arithms 
(arithmos, number) ; ana, apo, bio, chrono (chronos, time), 
concho (conche, shell), doxo (doxa, praise), entomo (entoma, 
insects), etymo (etymon, source), eu, genea (genos, birth), 
geo, mytho (muthos, fable), ornitho (ornis, ornithos, bird), 
patho (pathos, suffering), phreno (phren, mind), phraseo, 
(phrasis, diction), physio (phusis, nature), philo (philos, 
loved), psycho, (psuche, soul), tauto (the same), techno 
(techne, art), theo (theos, God), toxico (toxicon, poison), zoo 
(zoon, animal) + log + y; ana, bio, chrono, etymo, genea, geo, 
mytho, ornitho, patho, phreno, physio, philo, psycho, tauto, 
theo, zoo + log + ic + al or ic + al-hly; log(o) + meLch + y 
(strife) ; syl+log + ism ; ana, apo, cata, deca (ten), dia, ec 9 
epi, mono, pro + logu(e). 

Meter,* Metr, from metron, measure. 

Meter ; anemo (anem,os, wind), baro (baros, weight), dia, 
gaso (gas), hexa (hex, six), hydro (hudor, water), penta 
(five), peri, thermo (thermos, he&t) + meter ; metr + ic or ic 
•{■al; geo, sym, trigono (tri+gonia, angle) +metr+y. 

Phil,* Ptiilo, from philos, a friend or a lover. 

Phil 4- anthrop (anthropos, man) + y or anthrop 4- ist ; phil 
-fadelph (adelphos, brother) +ian or adelph + (ia) ; phil-h 
harmon (harmonia, harmony) -{-ic ; philo -f log + y or log 
-hist; philo + soph (sophia, wisdom) + er or soph -f y or 
soph -f ic or soph + ic -f- al or soph + ize. 



50 Word-Building. 

ADDITIONAL LATIN BOOTS.* 

Lessor XXVI. 

Cera, Cret, (cre) 9 from cer ne re, ere tus, to see, to sift, to 
distinguish, to separate. 

Con, dis + cern; dis + cern + er or ible or merit; de + 
cre(e); se + cre + cy. Dis, in + dis + cre(e)t ; se + cret; 1 se 
+ cret + ly or ive or ary ; 2 ex, se + cret -f ion ; 3 se + cre£ + £#0 
or (e) ; dis + cret + ion or ion + al or ion + al + ly. 

From the derivative cer to, we have cer£ 4- «£w 4 or ain + 
Zy or ain + ty. From cer tifi cd re, cer tifi cd tus, we have 
certi +fy ; certi +ficat + ion or ficat(e) . 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Secret, separated and hidden. 2 Secretary, 
originally a private clerk, one intrusted with secrets. 3 Secretion, the 
«c£ of secreting, that separated from the blood and made into new sub- 
stances. 4 Certain, used when one has sifted the matter thoroughly. 

Clam, Clamat, (claim), from cZa ma re, cla ma tus, to call, 
to cr j out. 

Clam -{-or 1 or or + ous or or-\-ous-\-ness; claim;' 1 claim 
-\-ant; un, un + re -{- claim + ed ; re + claim + able ; ac, de, 
dis, ex, pro, re + claim ; de, dis, ex, pro + claim + er ; ac, 
de, ex, pro -f clamat + io^ ; ^e, #2; + clamat + ory. 

Helps for the Pupil. — x Clamor, a noisy cry. 2 Claim, to demand as 
a right. 

Claus, (clos), (Clild, Clws, in compounds), from claudere 9 
clati sus, to shut. 

Claus(e). 1 Con, ex, in, pre, se + clud(e). Re + clus(o) ; 
* These not in the Regents' List. 



Elementary English. 51 

con, ex, in, se + clus + ion or ive; in -\- con -{- clus + ive ; 
clos + ure or et ; elos(e) ; 2 clos(e)+ly or ness ; en, in + clos 
+ ure or (e). 
From the derivative clans irum,, we get cloist + er, cloist 

+ er + ed, cloist + er + al. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Clause, a portion of the sentence shut off 
from the rest, by itself. 2 Close, to shut to. 

Fleet, Flex, Flexur, froniyZec te re, flex us, to bend. 

Be, in, re + fleet; de, in, re + fleet + ion ; l re + fleet Ar or 
or ive or ive + wess. Flex + £*fe or i(m or or or iSfe or ibil 
+ ity ; circum, re -{-flex; in, re+flex + ible or ibil + ity. 

Flexur (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — Reflection, the turning (metaphorical ?) of the 
mind bach upon itself. 

Flu, Flux, from flu e re, flux us, to flow. 

Flu(e) 1 flu + ent 2 or ency or id or id + ity ; af, con, ef, 
melli (mel, honey) +flu + ent or ence ; in +flu 4- ence 3 or ent 
+ (i)alj super + flu + ous A or ous + ly or ity. Flux; con, 
ef, in, re + flux ; flux + ion ; de + flux + ion. 

From the derivative flue tu a re, flue tu a tits, we have 
fluctuat + ion or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — l Flue, a passage for the smoke to flow 
through. 2 Fluent, flowing ; applied to a speaker, is it metaphorical ? 
3 Influence, a power conceived as flowing from a person or thing and 
affecting another. 4 Superfluous, overflowing. 

Greg, (gregi), from grex, gre gis, flock. 

Greg + ari + ous 1 or art + ows 4- ly or #n + 0^s + ness ; e -\» 
gregi + ous 2 or ous + Z«/ or ows + ness. 

From #r0 #<# re, gre gd tus, to collect into a flock, we have 



5 3 Word- Building. 

ag, se + gregat + ion or (e) ; con + gregat + ion or ion + al 

or ion + al + ist or ion + 0,1 + ism or (e). 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Gregarious, associating in flocks or herds. 
2 Egregious, out of, or above, the flock, or the common. 



Lessor XXVII. 

Hab, Habit , (a&, habitu, hibit), from fea &e re, /m& i tus, 
to have, hold, keep. 

Ab( — hab) + le l or I + ?/ ; ew, ^'s + a& ( = hab) -f fe ; 7«^& 
4- t7(i) -f ment. 2 Habit ; 3 habit -f- wrfe ; habitu + #Z or $Z + 
Z?/ or a^ ; &r, m, />ro 4- /*i&££ / e>£, t?&, ^ro -f hibit + /ow ; 0# 
+ hibit + or or on/ or ion i- er ; pro + hibit + ive or on/; 
de + bt* ( = hibit) ; de + bt + or. 

From ha Ml i tas, ha bil i td tis, we get a( = ha)bilit + y; 
de + bilit(=habilit) + y ; de + bilitat(=habilitat) +ion or 
(e). From the frequentative hab i td re, hab i td tus, to 
dwell, we get habita -f ble or bl + y or ble + ness ; habitat ; 
habitat -{- ion ; co, in + habit; in + habit + ant or able; co 
+ habitat + io^. 

Helps for the Pupil. — ! .A&fe, having power. 2 Habiliment, the &aw- 
£71*7, called cZrm. 3 Habit, the having, called custom, called 6?res5 also. 
* Zte&£, that due another, had away from him that owes. 

Her, lies, from haSr e re, hmsus, to stick. 

Ad, co, in + her(e) ; ad, co, in + her + ent or ence or e^y. 
-4^ co + hes + ion or i## or ive + ness. 

From the frequentative hces it a re, hces it a tus, we have 
hesit -f ancy ; l hesitat + ion or (e) ; un + hesitat + ing or 
ing + ly. 

Helps for the Pupil. — l Hesitancy, the sticking fast in doubt. 



Elementary English. 53 

Meet, ISTex, from nee te re, nex us, to bind or tie. 

Con, dis 4- con -f nect ; con + nect + ion or ive or ed or e^ 
4- /// ; rf-i's + con 4- wec£ + ion or efZ or ed + ly. An + nex ; con 
-f weas + ww; ^^ + nex + at + ion or #£ -f iow + ^. 

Scan, Scans, (Scend, Scens, (scent), in compounds), from 
scan de re, scan sus, to climb, to pass. 

Scan. Scans + ion. 1 A, de, con + de, tran+ scend ; a, 
de + scend + ant ; a + scend + ency ; tran + scend -f ent or 
ent + a? or ent + #/ + £sw&. A, con + ^ ^0 + seens + io/£ ; a, 
de + scent. 

Helps for the Pupil. — * Scansion, reading of poetry so as to mark 
the feet. 

Sed, $e§§, (see, s*<£, sidu, siz), from se dere, ses sus, to sit. 

#e<2 + ent -f # r?/ or ewtf -f ari + ^ess; setf(i) -f ment 1 or m^ 
-\-ary ; super + sed(e); see; 2 pre, re, sub + sid(e); pre, re + 
sid + ent; in + sid + (i)ous or (i)otis + ness ; sub -f- sid -f (i) 
«n/; as + sidu + ous 2 or ity ; re + Gidu(e); re + sidu + ary. 
Sess + ion or ion + al ; as,{pos), pre + ($os) + sess ; (pos) -f 
sess + ion or {#0 or or; as -{- sess + ment or or; 4 $s-f s£s(e). 5 
Helps for the Pupil. — * Sediment, that which has settled to the bot- 
tom; s#s ^ere, as it were. 2 #ee, the sea^, or jurisdiction, of a bishop. 
3 Assiduous, sitting intent wpow, attentive. * Assessor, originally, one 
who sat beside the judge. 5 Assize, a sitting, or session, of the court. 

Lessor XXVIII. 

Serv, Servit, (servi, serf), from ser ih re, ser #* tus, f serve, 
be a slave to. 

Serv(e) ; serv-\-ant or #r or ice or ice -{-able or ife or 7,74- 
i£y or ?7# 4- Z?/ ; de 4- sert? 4- ing or i/z^ + ??/ or ed or 6<i + ly or 
(e) ; 7ms, sub + serv(e) ; sub + servi + ent or ent + ly or 
ence ; serf; serf-\-dom. Servit + or or ude. 



54 Word- Building. 

Sign, from sig num, a sign. 

Sign ; sign + al or al 4- ize or al + ly or 0/. 

From the derivative sig nd re, sig nd tics, to set a mark, of 
seal, we have as, con, counter, de, re + sign; re + sign + ed 
or ££? 4- Z*/ ; tfe + sign + #r or #<i or ed + Zy ; as, con -f sign* -f- 
w?e^Z or er or 00; un + de, under + sign -{- ed ; as, de, re-\- 
signat-\-ion ; signatur(e). Prom sig nifi cd re, sig nifi- 
cd tus, we get signi +fy or fie -f ant or fie -f ance or ficat -f 
ion j in + signi +ftc + 0ft# or fie + tm££. 

Ten, Tent, (tin, tinu, tain), from £e ne re, ten tus, to hold. 

Ten + able or acious or ac + ity or «^i or ant + ry or (e) 
ment or et ; l un-\- ten + able or ant -\-ed; ten + ure; lien-h 
ten -\- ant or ancy ; coun, main, sus + ten + ance ; abs, con, 
in + cow, jtf07% im + jper + tin + 07^ or £^ce ; cow + £mte + al or 
al + ly or a/zc# or ^Y?/; eo?^ re + ££f&te(e) ; abs, ap+per, con, 
de, enter, main, ob, per, re, sus + tain. Con, dis + con + 
tent; con + tent + ment or s; dis + con + tent + ment or ed. 

Helps for the Pupil. — x Tenet, a doctrine held to. 

Tritont, from trib u e re, tri bu tus, to give. 

Tribute) ; tribut + ary ; at, con, dis, re + dis + tribut(e) ; 
at, con, dis, re, re + dis + tribut + ion ; at, con, dis + tribut 
■f a&Ze or ive / r# + tribut + £#£. 

Vine, Vict, {vinei), from i^i^ ee re, vie £ws, to conquer. 

Citm, 0, pro -\- vine{o) ;* in + vine -\- ible or ibil + ity or z'JJ 
+ y; pro + vinei + al 2 or al + isni. Con, e-rvict ; con, e + 
vict + ion; viet-\-or or or + ^/ or or-f (i)ows. 

Helps for the Pupil. — 1 Province, a conquered territory, a district or 
department. 2 Provincial, pertaining to a province, hence not national 
or cosmopolitan ; a term of reproach. 



Elementary English. 



55 



LATIN PREFIXES. 



ab (a, abs) — 


from, away 


da (duo) 


— two. 




from. 


eoo (a, e, ec 9 ef> 




* ad (a, acj af, 




es, (e) s) 


= out of, from. 


ag 9 al, am. 




extra 


= beyondj with* 


an 9 ap, ar 9 






out. 


as 9 at) = 


to, against. 


in (en, i 9 il 9 




ambi (amb 9 




im, ir) 


= not. 


am 9 an) = 


around, on all 


in ( am, an, 






sides. 


em, en, il, 




ante (an) = 


before. 


im 9 ir) 


= in, into, on, 


bene — 


well. 




upon. 


bi (bin, bis) = 


two, twice. 


inter (enter, 




circum (circu) = 


abound, 


intel) 


= among, be- 




around. 




tween. 


contra (con- 




intro 


— within. 


tro 9 coun- 




juocta 


= near to. 


ter) = 


against. 


male (mat) 


= badly, evil, 


cum (co 9 col 9 






or ill. 


com 9 con. 




ne, nee ( = ne 




cor 9 coun) = 


with, to- 


+ que, neg) 


= not. 




gether, or 


non (— ne + 






adds force. 


unum) 


= not, not one. 


de — 


away, down, 


ob (o, oc, of, 






from, or 


op, os 9 o{b)s) 


= against, upon. 




adds force. 


pen (pozne) 


== almost. 


dis (de, des, 




per (par, pel, 




di, dif) — 


apart, not, op- 


pit) 


= through. 




posite act. 


post 


= after. 



* For the sake of euphony the last letter of the prefix is often 
changed to the first letter of the root, or is dropped. 



56 



Word-Bu ilding. 



pre 




= before. 


sub (sou, sue, 




prefer 




= past, beyond. 


suf, sug, 




pro 


(prod, 




sum, sup, 




prof, 


pol, 




sur, sus) 


= under, from 


por, 


pur, 






below. 


pru) 




= f o r , forth, 


suhter 


= under. 






forwards. 


super (sur) 


— over, above, 


re (red) 




= again, back, 
against, or 


trans (tran, 


beyond. 






o pposite 


tra, tres) 


= beyond, 






act. 




across, 


retro 




— backward. 




through. 


se (sed) 




= away, from. 


tri (tre) 


= three, thrice. 


semi 




= half. 


ultra 


= beyond. 


sine 




= without. 


vice (vis) 


= in place of* 



ANGLO-SAXON, OR ENGLISH, PREFIXES. 



a 


= at, in, on, or adds force. 


mis 


= wrong, wrongly. 


after 


= behind. 


never 


= not ever. 


all (al) 


= wholly. 


off 


== from. 


be 


= to make, cause, by. 


out 


== beyond. 


for 


= against, not, or adds 


over 


= above, in excess. 




force. 


to 


= at, the, this. 


fore 


r= before, in front. 


un 


= not, opposite act in 


forth 


= forward. 




verbs. 


full 


= completely. 


under 


= beneath. 


gain 


= against. 


tv ell (wel) 


= rightly. 


in (im) 


s= in, into, within ; some- 


with 


= against, from, 




times, intensive. 




back. 



GREEK PREFIXES. 



amphi 


= on both sides. 


apo (ap) 


— from. 


an (a) 


= not. 


cata (cat) 


= down. 


ana 


= again, back, 


di (dis) 


= twice, two, 




through. 


dia (di) 


— through. 


anti (ant) 


= against. 


dys 


= bad, ill. 



Elementary English. 



57 



ec (ex) 
en (em) 
epi (ep) 
eu (ev) 
hemi 
hyper 
hypo (hyp) 
meta (met) 



from, out of. 
in, on. 
; upon, 
well, 
half, 
over, 
under. 

beyond, after, 
change. 



mono (mon) 
para (par) 
peri 
poly 
pro 
pseudo 
syn (syl, sym 9 
sys, sy) 



= alone, one. 
= beside. 
= around. 
= many. 
= before. 
= false. 

— with. 



LATIN SUFFIXES. 



The part of speech formed by the aid of the suffix is indicated by 
the letter placed before it. — n.=nonu, v. =verb, a. ^adjective, ad.=r 
adverb. 

Many of these suffixes are much changed in form and in meaning 
by long sojourn in the French language. 



aahle (ahil 9 




« nan, ain, 


abl, 


ble 9 




ane, ean, 


bl); 


ible 




ian = pertaining to ; 


(ibil, 


ibl, 




one who. 


Ml, bl, 


= 


able to be, fit to 


nance, ancy 






be, causing. 


(anc) = state of being ; 


aaceous^ 


t 




act of. 


acious = 


having the qual- 


nand, end = L. fut. part. 






ity of, full of. 


ending. 


naey 




: state or quality 


ant See ent. 






of being. 


aar = pertaining to. 


*ad. 




See at. 


a nary (ari) ar=belonging to ; 


nage 




: state of being ; 


one who ; place where. 






act of ; that 


n vat, it, p. part, ending; ending 






which ; a col- 


of L. n. stem also. 






lection of. 


anvate, (at)— having ; one who ; 


a nal, el, 


(i) 


— pertaining to ; 


to make. 






the act of. 


ble t See able. 



58 



Word-Building. 



nbuluni, bule, {bill) ble— 

place ; that which or by which. 

nculum, cule , (cul) 9 ele 9 cher 
:= place; that which or by 
which. 

ce. See acy. 

ncle 9 eel, cule 9 (c«e/)=little (dim- 
inutives). 

cy. See acy. 

nee = one to whom. 

^eer. See second er, below. 

el 9 eel. See at. 

nence, (enc) 9 eney—stsitQ of be- 
ing. 

we/*s=of, belonging to. 

n aent=one who ; that which ; 
being or ing. 

ner 9 (r) 9 eer 9 ier 9 =one who. 

ver (frequentative or causative). 

nerj/9 vi/9 er= place where; state 
of being ; collection ; art of. 

vesc— :to grow to or tend or be- 
come. 

ness denotes female agent. 

aesque— somewhat, like. 

nest— of, belonging to. 

nestr— of, belonging to. 

nette 9 et= little (diminutive). 

ey. See y. 

ible. See able. 

aHc 9 ical— pertaining to ; made 
of ; one who. 

nice— state or quality of being ; 
thing that. 

aid— quality, pertaining to. 

ier See eer. 

<Hle 9 (i£)=able to be ; relating to. 



Hne 9 {in)— belonging to ; n. end- 
ing also. 

nion=£Lct of; state of being; that 
which. 

aique=belongmg to. 

ish. See esc. 

n aite= one who ; being. 

Hty 9 if y) = state or quality of be- 
ing. 

w- Hve 9 (iv)=one who ; that which; 
having power or quality. 

nix 9 denotes a female. 

Hx—thsit which. [give. 

Hzei (iz) 9 ise 9 (is) = to make, to 

vle 9 if) (frequentative). 

ale 9 n f). See al, el. 

Hence— abundance of. 

alent— abounding in. 

mnen— that acted upon. 

nment estate of being ; act of ; 
that which. 

nmony 9 (moni)= state of being; 
that which : that derived from. 

a nocr= pertaining to. 

non 9 oon 9 ion =one who. 

on. See ion. 

nor=one who ; that which. 

nor 9 our = state or quality of be- 
ing; place where. 

anory 9 (ori)= relating to; place 
where ; thing which. 

®ose 9 (os) 9 ous= full of, having. 

not=one who. 

nr=er or or=one who. 

rix denotes female agent. 

ry. See ery. 

sion 9 son. See ion. 



Elementary English. 



59 



atime— belonging to. 
Hon, See ion. 

ntude, {tiid, ude)= state of be- 
ing. 
ty. See ity. 
aul— prone to. 



nule, til— little (diminutives). 
nure 9 (ur) = state or act of ; that 

which. 
aurn = belonging to. 
ny 9 (i) = state of being; that which. 



ANGLO-SAXON, OR ENGLISH, SUFFIXES. 



nar= one who. 
nard—ouQ who. 

wdom=state of being; domain of. 
^ec?, d, £=past tense and past 

par. ending. 
^el—thsit which or by which. 
<*wnen=ma,&ts of ; to make ; past 

par. little (diminutive). 
ner=oue w T ho; that which. 
«er=more (comparative degree). 
ver (frequentative or causative). 
er (adjective ending). 
aest =most (superlative degree). 
aful= full of, causing. 
nhead, 7iooc£= state or quality of 

being. 
nie f 2f= little (diminutives). 
nvaing=th.Q act; continuing. 
a^i8/t=somewhat; like; to make. 
nhifi= little (diminutive). 
He 9 denotes frequent action. 
nle— that which. 
aless— without. 



nlet= little (diminutive). 
nling— little (diminutive). 
aadly 9 (It, y)=like, manner. 
rmess= state or quality of being. 
nock— little (diminutive). 
wo/ 1 = one who, that which. 
vow =to make. 
now—hj which. 
nvs or es the plu. ending of nouns 

and the ending of 3d per. sing. 

of verbs. 
n's or 9 denotes possessive case. 
nship = state of, office of. 
asome=i\\\l of, causing. 
nst = state of being. 
nster— one who. 
Hh 9 t= state of being. 
upward, wards=dxrQztioi\ of. 
adwise — manner. 
ny. See i'e. 
«?/=full of, having. 
a ady % See Zy. 



GREEK 

dac— pertaining to. 

net =one who. 

a^iCj ical— pertaining to ; made 

of ; one who. 
nic ? ics= science of. 



SUFFIXES. 

vise, ize—io make; to give. 
nism estate of being; doctrine. 
nist =one who. 
nyz=. state of being. 



00 



Word-Building. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 
Vowels and Consonants. 
DEFINITION.— A Vowel is a letter that stands for a free, open 
sound of the voice. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u. 

W is a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a 
vowel sound ; as, new, now ; and y is a vowel when it has the sound of i ; 
as, by, duty, boy. W and y are consonants at the beginning of a word 
or a syllable ; as, wet, yet. 

DEFINITION.— A Consonant is a letter that stands for a sound 
made by the obstructed voice or the obstructed breath.* 

The consonants are the letters of the alphabet not named above as 
vowels. 

Sounds of the Vowels. 

Diacritical marks used in Webster's Dictionary, 



a, long, in hate, 
a, short, in hat. 
a, Italian, in far. 
a, broad, in all. 

5. a, intermediate, in ask. 

6. a, long before r, in care. 



1. e, long, in me. 

2. e, short, in met. 

1. I, long, in pine. 

2. i, short, in pin. 



1. o, long, in note. 

2. b, short, in not. 

3. o (like Zo^ oo) in dp. 

1. u, Zo^, in tube. 

2. u, short, in tub. 

3. u (like sfto/'jf oo) in pull. 

4. u (before r) in fur. 

oi and oy (unmarked = ai) in oil, 

toy. 
ou and ow (unmarked = aob) in 

out, now. 



* H, which represents a mere forcible breathing, is an exception. 



Elementary English. 



61 



One letter used for another. 



o == a, as in form. 

o (unmarked) = u, as in worm. 

06 = p, as in mdbn. 

06 = u, as in wool. 

u = pj as in rude. 

y = I, as in fly. 

y = 1, as in myth. 



a = 5, as in what. 

& = a, as in where, heir. 

e = a, as in eight. 

e = u (nearly), as in her. 

1 = e, as in police. 

T = u (nearly), as in sir. 

6 = ii, as in done. 

o = Uj as in wolf. 

Remarks. — a is between a and a. a represents the first, or 1 1 radi- 
cal," part of a, touched lightly, without the "vanish," or e sound, a 
is nearly equivalent to e prolonged before r. 

u is between & and e. Some careful speakers discriminate between 4 
(= o in worm) and e (= i\ making the former a modification of u and 
the latter a modification of $. 

In the " International Dictionary" (the latest "Webster"), a, e, 
t, 0, u, represent the long sounds as modified in syllables without 
accent; e.g., senate, event, idea, obey, unite. The " International " 
often respells instead of using diacritical marks. 

When one vowel of a diphthong is marked, the other is silent. 

JJiaeritical marks used in Worcester's Dictionary* 



a in hate, 
a in hat. 
a in far. 
a in all. 
a in ask. 
a in care. 

e in me. 
e in met. 

1 in pine. 
i in pin. 



6 in note. 
6 in not. 
6 in do. 

u in tube. 
ii in tub. 
u in pull, 
ii in fur. 

61, 6y in oil, toy. 
6u, ow in out, nowi 



62 



Word-Building. 



£ in where. 
% in her. 
i in police, 
i in sir. 
6 in done. 



6 in form. 
66 in moon, 
u in rude. 
y in fly. 
y in myth. 



Sounds of the Consonants. 

Explanation. — The two classes of consonants are arranged below m 
separate columns. Those in " 1 " are called vocal consonants (voice 
consonants), and those in * ' 2 " are called aspirates (breath consonants). 

The letters with dots between them form pairs. Give the sound of 
the first letter of any pair, and you will find that, as the voice stops, 
the vanishing sound will be the sound of the other letter. The tongue, 
teeth, lips, and palate are in the same position for both, the only differ- 
ence being that in one there is voice, and in the other only a whisper. 



1. 


2. 


1. 


2. 


Vccal Consonants. 


Aspirates. 


Vocal Consonants. 


Aspirates. 


\) 


P 

t 


r 




a 


th (in thine). 


(th in 


s 


k 


v 


f 




h 


w 




j 


ch 


y 




l 




z (in zone). . . 


s 


m 




z (in azure). . 


sh 


n 







C, q, and x are not found in the columns above. C = k or s; q — k: ; 

x = ks or gz. 

Diacritical marks — Webster. 



q, soft {— s), in cent. 
-c, hard (= k), in-eall. 
ch (unmarked) in child. 
5h, soft (= sh), in chaise. 
-€h, hard (= k), in-chorus. 
g, hard, in get. 
g, soft (= j), in gem. 



s, sharp (unmarked), in same. 

§, soft (= z), in ha§ s 

th, sharp (unmarked), in thin. 

4hj soft or vocal, in-this. 

n (= ng) in ink. 

x (= gz) in e^ist. 



Elementary English. 63 

Diacritical marks — Worcester. 



9 in cent. 
£}, q (or &) in call, 
ch (unmarked) in child, 
ch in chaise. 

JCH, ch (or ph) in chorus 
&, £ in get. 



G, g in gem. 

s in has. 

th (unmarked) in thin. 

^H th in this. 

x in exist. 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 

RULE L— Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a 
vowel ; as 5 fine, finer ; love, loving. 

Exceptions. — Words ending in ce and ge retain e before able and 
ous to keep c and g soft ; as, peaceable, changeable, courageous. Words 
in oe and ee retain the e unless the suffix begins with e; as, hoeing, 
seeing. 

RULE II.— 1^ after a consonant becomes i before a suffix not 
beginning with i ; as, witty, wittier ; dry, dried. 

Exception. — Fdoes not change before 's; as, enemy's, 

RULE III.— In monosyllables and words accented on the last 
syllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles before a 
suffix beginning with a vowel $ as 9 hot, hotter ; begin, beginning. 

Exceptions. — The final consonant is not doubled when, in the deriv- 
ative, the accent is thrown from the last syllable of the primitive ; as, 
refer' , reference. But we have excel' , excellent, excellence. X, k, 
and v are never doubled. 

Remark. — To the Rules above (and inferences from them) there are 
a few other exceptions ; as, dyeing (coloring), singeing, tingeing, mileage, 
awful, wholly, judgment, acknowledgment; slyly, dryness, piteous; 
gases, transferable, humbugged, crystallize, cancellation. 



G4 Word-Building. 



Lesson XXIX. 

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. — THE 
EARLY CONQUESTS OF BRITAIN. 

The languages spoken on the earth have been more or less 
perfectly classified. Above all other classes in importance is 
that to which our own tongue belongs, namely : — 

I. The Indo-European Family. — Of this family there are 
ten members — three Asiatic and seven European. Seven of 
the ten have long been recognized : (1) The Indian, or San- 
skrit, used in Hindostan ; (2) the Iranian, or Ancient and 
Modern Persian ; (3) the Hellenic — Ancient and Modern 
Greek ; (4) the Italic, fchat is, the Latin and its descendants — 
viz., the Italian, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the French^ 
the Provencal, the Eheto-Eomanic, and the Wallachian ; (5) 
the Slavonic — preeminently the Russian ; (6) the Celtic, or 
Keltic, made up of the Cymric and the Gaelic ; and (7) the 
Teutonic, subdivided into the Gothic, the Scandinavian, the 
High German, and the Low German. Into the Low German 
the English falls. To these seven, recent scholars have 
added (8) the Lithuanian, closely related to the Slavonic ; 
(9) the Armenian ; and (10) the Albanian. 

II. The Celts. — This people early occupied the Spanish 
Peninsula, Gaul when Caesar subdued it, and Britain, when 
Caesar visited it in 55 and in 54 B.C. The Celts in Britain 
were at this time broken into many tribes, which seldom 
united in a common cause. 



History of the English Language, 65 

III. The Eoman Conquest. — The Celts did not make a 
stubborn resistance to the Romans, who by 84 A.D. had con- 
quered as far north as the Firth of Forth. This the Romans 
joined to the river Clyde by the wall of Antoninus. They 
subsequently built, as additional protection, the famous wall 
of Severus, or Hadrian's wall, uniting the Solway and the 
Tyne. The Romans did not attempt a thorough conquest 
of Britain ; but, with their headquarters at Eboracum, now 
York, held the island by a series of fortified posts, whose 
sites are now mainly indicated by towns with names ending in 
cluster, cester, or caster — forms of the Latin castra, a camp. 
But the imperial city whose empire stretched so far, whose 
armies were largely composed of soldiers drafted from her 
subject peoples and led by generals of their own blood, was 
menaced by invading hordes, and was forced to recall her 
legions for her own defence. By 420 the soldiers had all 
left Britain, never to return, and the Celts were again free. 
But their freedom was of short duration. By the middle 
of the fifth century a more formidable invasion than the 
Roman had taken place, and a more thorough conquest was 
begun by 

IV. The Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. — These peoples 
were of the Low German branch of the Teutonic stock. 
They had blue eyes and flaxen hair, were large of frame, 
fond of adventure on land and on sea, and were fierce and 
cruel in battle. They were owners and tillers of the soil, 
hated cities, knew no king, and lived each group of related 
families within its mark, or district, which was bounded by 
a belt of neutral land from other ^farmer commonwealths. " 

The Jutes, we are told, came over under Hengist and 
Horsa in 449, and settled in Kent. Ella and his followers, 
in 477, and Cerdic with his, in 495, settled Sussex in the 



66 Word-Building. 

south and Wessex in the west, and later Saxons founded 
Essex. The ending sex would of itself suggest the origin of 
these kingdoms. Three kingdoms north of Thames — the 
largest of which, Northumbrian stretched from the Humber 
to the Forth — were founded by the Angles. Besides North- 
umbrian East Anglia and Mercia were established. 

The conquest of the Celts by these Low German invaders 
proceeded slowly. Not till 607 had the unexterminated 
Britons taken refuge in the western part of the island. And 
now for more than two hundred years the conquerors waged 
fierce war upon one another. The several kingdoms, for 
war begat the king, contended for the overlordship, till at 
last Wessex secured it, and Egbert its king ruled from the 
English Channel to the Firth of Forth. 

Meanwhile the invaders had been Christianized, Augus- 
tine and his missionaries arriving from Eome in 597. The 
Christian temple rose on the site of the pagan fane. By the 
end of the seventh century, the Church was a single organ- 
ization. As population increased, the marks coalesced and 
became shires, of which in Alfreds time there were thirty- 
two, each with its religious, legal, and political organization. 

V. The Danish Conquest. — The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 
relates that in 787 the Danes, as all Scandinavians at that 
time were called, began their invasions. Sweeping up the 
great rivers that pour into the North Sea, they laid waste 
the territory adjacent, harried and killed the inhabitants, 
and settled as they conquered. The very verb harry is 
Anglo-Saxon, derived from their name for the dreaded Dan- 
ish army — here. What terror this army inspired may be 
gathered from the prayer that made its way into the Anglo- 
Saxon litany : " From the incursions of the Northmen, good 
Lord, deliver us." 



to 



History of the English Language. 67 

These Scandinavians were beaten in great battles and 
driven back, but only to return. They were bought off with 
gold ; and finally, on condition that they would confine 
themselves within it, they were given the territory to the 
east and north-east of Watting Street, an old Roman mili- 
tary road which stretched from near Dover through London 
to Chester on the Dee. But they could not be kept w T ithln 
the limits of this territory, called the Danelagh, and at last 
succeeded in placing four kings in succession on the throne 
of England — Sweyn, Canute, Harold Harefoot, and Hardi- 
canute, 1013-1042. 

VI. The Norman Conquest. — The Normans, or Northmen, 
were originally of the Norse, or Scandinavian, branch of the 
Teutonic race. " They were men of action, enterprising 
merchants, navigators, soldiers of fortune, leading the van 
of every battle from Norway to Byzantium."" Breaking 
from the restraints of a power that was consolidating the 
Scandinavian kingdoms, they boldly ventured forth, con- 
quered the Shetland Isles, the Orkneys, and the Hebrides, 
founded the kingdom of Caithness in Scotland, settled Ice- 
land, discovered Greenland, and colonized Vinland, supposed 
to be on the coast of New-England. 

In 911, a Norman chief, Molf, or Eollo, the Ganger, with 
his band of vikings, got a footing in the fertile valley of the 
Seine. This province of Normandy he received as a fief 
from Charles the Simple, and married his daughter. The 
Normans were brought under French law and customs, 
became Christians, adopted the French language, married 
into French families, and caught the French spirit. 

In 1066, the childless Edward the Confessor, of England, 
died, and Harold, his brother-in-law, succeeded him. But 
William, seventh Duke of Normandy, whose aunt, Emma, 



68 Word-Building. 

had been married to Ethelred II. of England, claimed the 
throne by hereditary right and by the promise of both Ed- 
ward and Harold, and set sail with thirty thousand followers 
for the coast of England. On October 14, 1066, he met and 
defeated Harold on the slope of Senlac, near Hastings, 
and soon after was crowned king at Westminster. This was 
the one conquest that reached down to the people of the 
island, and in time thoroughly leadened them. The admix- 
ture of new blood and another spirit proved a most signal 
blessing to them. We can call it no less than their regen- 
eration. 

'Lesson XXX. 

THE ENGLISH. — ITS COMPOSITION. 

I. Celtic of tlie First Period— in English. — The language 
spoken on the island, after its conquest by the Angles, the 
Saxons, and the Jutes, was overwhelmingly that of the con- 
querors, and is called Anglo-Saxon. But it was not pure ; 
a few Celtic words had entered it. The Celtic names for 
the rivers, lakes, hills, and mountains clung fast to these 
objects, and are found in English even now. 

Isaac Taylor, in his Words and Places, says, " Through- 
out the whole of England there is hardly a single river-name 
which is not Celtic/' Avon, Celtic for water, is the name of 
fourteen English rivers to-day. Esk, meaning the same 
thing, designates more than twenty. Esk has entered into 
the names of towns also, as in Exeter, J^minsier, Oxford, 
and Abridge. Thames, Humber, Wye, Cam, Ouse, and 
many other river-names are Celtic. Pen or Ben, the usual 
Celtic name for a mountain, is seen in the name for the 
range called Pennine, in that of the hills called Zetland, in 



History of the English Language, 69 

itew-Nevis and 2?ew-Lomond. Dw, a hill-fortress, is found 
in l^oudon, Dumhaxton, Dundee, etc. Many other Celtic 
words can be found on almost any map of England, and, 
indeed, on the maps of Spain, Italy, Switzerland, and Ger- 
many. Besides these geographical terms it is said that the 
common words 

Clout, crock, cradle, cart, down, pillow, barrow, glen, havoc, kiln, 
mattock, and pool 

came into the Anglo-Saxon before the Norman Conquest. 
As other Celtic words appeared later, we will call all these, 
whether geographical or not, entering the Anglo-Saxon and 
continued on into English, the Celtic, or Keltic, of the 
First Period. 

II. Latin of the First Period — in English. — But in the 
Celtic vocabulary foreign words had found a lodgment. 
The Romans held most of the island for hundreds of years. 
Many of their words filtered down into the speech of the 
subject Celts. Some of these, seven it is said, forced their 
way up into the language of the Anglo-Saxon conquerors. 
Castra, a camp, appears in the names of towns ending in 
Chester, caster, and cester, as* Manchester, Jj&ucaster, and 
Jjeicester ; strata, paved streets, in Stratford, Streath&m, 
etc. ; colon i a, a settlement, in Lthicoln and Colne ; fossa, a 
trench, in Fosswaj and Foshvidge ; port 21s, a harbor, in 
Portsmouth and Bridport ; vallum, a rampart, in wall; 
and mile. These seven now in English we call Latin of the 
First Period. 

III. Latin of the Second Period — in English. — But, as we 
have said, the heathen Anglo-Saxons were Christianized. 
Hosts of Moman words, some of which were derived from 
the Greek, came in -with, or followed in the wake of, the 



70 Word-Building. 

Christian Churchy whose services were conducted in Latin. 
Presbyter, originally an elder, apostolus, one sent, clericus, 
one ordained, and episcopus, an overseer, taking the forms 
in Anglo-Saxon of preost, postol, clerc, and biscop, and in 
English of priest, apostle, cleric, and bishop, and such words 
as cheese, pound, candle, table, and marble illustrate these 
acquisitions. Of the Latin words brought into Anglo-Saxon 
.by the Church, or entering through the door which it 
opened, there were before the Norman Conquest at least six 
hundred, it is thought ; if compounds are counted, three or 
four times as many. These are styled the Latin of the 
Second Period. 

IV. Scandinavian of the First Period — in English. — The 
Danish Conquest introduced Scandinavian terms. Taylor 
says that in the east of England, most of them in the Dane- 
lagh, there are six hundred places whose names end in by, 
Scandinavian for town. This is seen in Kug%, Grimsby, in 
one hundred names in Lincolnshire alone, and in our by-law. 
Thorp, or torp, German dorf, a village, is found in Althorpe 
and Wilstrop ; thwaite, a clearing, in Fmsthwaite and 
~Braithwaite ; ness, a nose or cape, in Sheerness and Caith- 
ness ; wic, a creek or bay, in Wickh&m, Norwich, and in 
viking ; toft, a homestead, in Lowest oft and Totness ; and 
garth, a yard, in Aj)j)legarth and Fishguard. All these and 
beck, a brook ; force, a waterfall ; dale, German thai, a 
valley ; and holm, an island, existing as separate words or in 
composition, and entering before the Norman Conquest, we 
call Scandinavian of the First Period, 

V. The Norman French — Latin of the Third Period — in 
English. — The changes which the Anglo-Saxon underwent 
because of the Norman Conquest are vital, we will say fun- 
damental ; they amount to a revolution. A change of 



History of the English Language. 71 

name is needed to mark this. We have refrained from 
calling the dominant people of the island, or their speech, 
before 1066, by any other term than Anglo-Saxon. But 
after the union of the peoples and of the languages, a new 
word is needed to denote new things ; and this term we have 
in the word English. As we use it, English denotes always 
the race resulting from the marriage of the two peoples, or 
the speech resulting from the union of the two tongues. 

But we must guard against supposing that either the two 
peoples or the two tongues were welded into one instantane- 
ously. They grew together, and this growth was slow. 

The Two Peoples Side by Side. — Any yoke of conquest 
would be galling to the liberty-loving Anglo-Saxons, but 
there are special reasons why this was so. The conquerors 
were of alien blood, and national animosity existed between 
them and the conquered. William confiscated the entire 
soil. He parceled out the land, upon condition of military 
service, among a score or more of great vassals, among some 
hundreds of inferior crown-vassals, and among the higher 
clergy. " The meanest Norman rose to wealth and power 
in the new dominion of the Duke." Shoals of Norman 
ecclesiastics came across the Channel, and the people were 
forced to receive even religious consolation from foreigners. 
Another language than their own prevailed in all places of 
authority — in the palace and among the nobility, in law 
courts, in the schools. To their painful consciousness of 
social and political degradation was added their keen sense 
of the scorn with which the Norman regarded their lack of 
culture and their "barbarous tongue." 

But the influences operative through all these years were 
not tvholly those of repulsion. These two peoples living 
together had to meet each other in the field and in the town. 



72 Word-Building. 

They were forced to buy of each other and to sell to each 
other. The subject race gradually acquired definite rights. 
The serf was struggling to become a copyholder, and the 
copyholder to be a freeholder. The military power of the 
nobles was waning. The courts of the feudal baronage were 
shorn of their power. The feudal system was giving way. 
The Anglo-Saxons were improving in education as in ma- 
terial things. They and the Normans intermarried. 

A strong national feeling was springing up before which 
their mutual antagonism was yielding. This feeling was 
aided by the fact that the English kings had vast possessions 
in France, partly hereditary and partly acquired by mar- 
riage. To hold these against the French kings required a 
united people. And to make head against the encroach- 
ments of their own kings the nobility were forced to make 
common cause with the people. To what extent the barons 
identified the cause of the commons with their own may be 
seen from the celebrated provisions of the Great Charter 
extorted from King John in 1215. 

Lesson XXXI. 

THE ENGLISH. — ITS COMPOSITION. — CONTINUED. 

V. Latin of the Third Period — in English. — Continued. — Yet 

how slowly the Anglo-Saxon and the French were blending 
in the vocabulary of writers, at least, may be seen in the fact 
that Layamon's Brut, a poem of thirty-two thousand lines, 
written in 1205, does not contain a hundred and fifty French 
words ; and that in the Ormulurn, a poem of twenty thou- 
sand lines, appearing in the year of Magna Charta, scarcely 
fifty French words are found. 



History of the English Language. 73 

The Two Languages Side by Side. — But during this period 
the linguistic difficulties in the way of a coalescence were 
gradually lessening. This period was for the subject race 
one of great and general depression. Their speech w T as no 
longer cultivated. The standards in it were all forgotten. 
Anglo-Saxon was no longer taught in schools, spoken at the 
palace and in the castles of the nobles, or used in courts of 
law. Few were writing in it. It was left in the care of 
those ignorant of the literature in it and of its grammar, and 
familiar only with the vocabulary employed in speech upon 
the commonplace topics of the household, the farm, the street. 

The effect of all this upon the language can easily be in- 
ferred. A large fraction of the vocabulary, the more digni- 
fied and scholarly portion, fell into neglect and then into 
oblivion. Of the words kept in circulation, so much of 
each as we call its grammatical inflections, denoting case, 
person, number, tense, almost entirely perished. These in- 
flections would be retained only by those aware of their im- 
portance. When, then, this Anglo-Saxon speech had forced 
itself upon the ]STormans, as it fairly succeeded in doing by 
the second half of the fourteenth century, it was far easier 
to 'master than it would have been immediately after 1066. 
It is estimated that nearly one-half of the words in the vocab- 
ulary before the Conquest dropped out of it in the three 
hundred years immediately following, and we certainly know 
that the grammar had been vastly simplified. 

Instruction Revolutionized.— We said that by 1350 the con- 
quered had forced their tongue upon their conquerors. We 
have it upon the authority of John of Trevisa, that, after 
the great pestilence of 1349, the instruction of youth was 
revolutionized. John Cornwall changed the instruction in 
the grammar-school from French into English, and Richard 



74 Word-Building. 

Pencrich and others followed his lead, so that in 1385 in all 
the grammar-schools of England the children had abandoned 
French and were taught in English. In 1362 French was 
exchanged for English in the courts of law. An act of 
Parliament was passed in this year, ordering that in all the 
courts " all pleas . . . shall be pleaded, shewed, defended, 
answered, debated, and judged in the English tongue." 
Great writers had now arisen — Wyclif, 1324-1384, in prose ; 
Chaucer, 1340-1400, in poetry. They wrote in English, and 
their influence upon the plastic language of their time, and 
upon all English writers succeeding, is simply incalculable. 

The Norman-French — Corrupt— We may add that the 
adoption of Anglo-Saxon by the Norman was greatly facili- 
tated by the fact that the French he was using had become 
sadly corrupt. That wdiich he brought over from the Con- 
tinent was not the French of Paris, but the degenerate 
tongue of Normandy, and so at best was provincial, a mere 
patois. But during the centuries of its use in England it 
had been kept from free contact with the dialect of Nor- 
mandy, and so had deteriorated even from this imperfect 
standard — had become, as Lounsbury aptly puts it, a mere 
patois of sl patois. 

When now we say that by 1400, and even earlier, English 
was generally used, what are we really saying ? What do 
we mean by English ? We mean a speech not in existence 
by itself till long after the Norman Conquest ; a speech 
neither Anglo-Saxon nor French, but Anglo-Saxon and 
French; a speech to which both of these contributed, to 
form which both of these combined. What by mutual giv- 
ing and taking the two jointly formed is the English — one 
speech after the union, but not uni vocal, not all of a piece, 
every speaker of which is bilingual. 



History of the English Language. 75 

The Norman-French — really Latin. — We have hitherto 
called the tongue brought over by the Conqueror Norman- 
French. But it is time now to say that in reality it was 
Latin. Just before the Christian era began, Julius Caesar 
subdued the people then in possession of what is now 
France, and imposed upon them his language, which was 
that of Eome. This language, used for a thousand years 
by a people to whom it was not the mother-tongue, the 
JSformans, of still another alien stock, acquired, and brought 
into England. Spoken a whole millennium by those whose 
vernacular it displaced, and from them learned by strangers, 
the words had lost much of their original form and meaning. 
They were almost invariably shortened. By a dropping of 
vowels or consonants, or of both, two or three syllables had 
been squeezed into one ; as, French stir, our sure, from 
original Latin securus ; French regie, our rule, from Latin 
regula ; French He, English isle, from insula. And some- 
times the final and unaccented syllable or syllables seem not 
to have been caught by the subject Gaul ; or, if caught, were 
not retained. The Latin domina, for instance, appears in 
French as the truncated dame ; and malum, as mal. Still, 
though changed, the French words are Latin ; their essential 
identity with the words used by the countrymen of Horace 
and Virgil is easily seen. These Norman-French words, 
introduced in the centuries succeeding the Conquest, and 
entering into union with the Anglo-Saxon to form the 
English, constitute the Latin of the Third Period,, 

VI. Latin of the Fourth Period — in English. — The Norman- 
French words in English were largely spoken words — words 
dropping from the tongue, and learned by the ear, both in 
France and afterward in England. But there was another 
large infl.uoc of Latin words consequent upon that great 



76 Word- Building. 

quickening of European mind known as the Renaissance, 
or Revival of Learning, the first waves of which touched 
English shores about the opening of the sixteenth century. 
The New Learning and the new ideas to which it gave birth 
demanded new words ; and, from 1550 to 1660, Latin was 
the store on which writers began to draw. But the Latin of 
these learned men was the Latin of the eye and the pen, 
taken from Latin literature ; or, if from French as well, it 
was not the language spoken by the people. The Latin 
words thus transferred to English had suffered then, and 
have suffered since, little or no change, and may readily be 
distinguished from the Latin of the Third Period by. their 
fuller form. These Latin words, brought in to meet the 
needs of scholars — and their coming has not yet wholly ceased 
— are called the Latin of the Fourth Period. 

Lesson XXXII. 

THE ENGLISH.— ITS COMPOSITION. — CONTINUED. 

VII. Celtic of the Second Period — in English. — But as the 

original Celtic of Britain had Latin words in it, so the Latin 
of the Normans had Celtic words in it. The Gauls them- 
selves were Celts ; and it could not be that, when forced to 
adopt the Latin tongue, they would surrender every word of 
their own speech. Indeed, in the province of Brittany, the 
native tongue was not exterminated, and, as Breton, still 
survives. The Celtic words brought into English by the 
incoming of the Normans constitute the Celtic of the 
Second Period. A few of these words are 

Baggage,' bar, barrel, basin, button, carry, pottage, truant, varlet, 
and vassal. 



History of the English Language. 77 

VIII. Celtic of the Third Period — in English. — Whatever 
Celtic words have been admitted into English since, whether 
Irish, Welsh, Gaelic, or Breton — and 

Clan, claymore, flimsy, kern, pibroch, plaid, spalpeen, and whiskey 

are samples of these — constitute the Celtic of the Third 
Period. 

IX. Scandinavian of the Second Period — in English. — 

Whatever Scandinavian words have come into English since 
the Norman Conquest, and, according to Professor Skeat, 
their name is legion, such as, 

Are, call, drag, gabble, grab, hap, hinge, hurry, lug, lunch, pod, sag, 
scratch, scream, shirt, stutter, teem, whim, and whisk, 

we call Scandinavian of the Second Period. 

X. Greek — in English, — Greek has a very respectable con- 
tingent in English — five per cent, of the whole vocabulary, 
Trench estimates. Perhaps half this number would be a 
better guess. They are largely scientific and technical, rarely 
on the tongue in conversation. They are such as : — 

Amphibious, anodyne, blaspheme, catarrh, cynosure, decagon, dilem- 
ma, doxology, electric, exegesis, heliocentric, heterodox, hyperbole, 
isosceles, labyrinth, lexicon, mechanic, metamorphosis, monosyllable, 
necrology, oxygen, phrenology, rhetoric, squirrel, surgeon, synonym, 
telegraph, thermometer, trophy, tyrant, and zoology. 

From the Hebrew, we have such words as : — 

Amen, cabal, cherub, hallelujah, hosannah, Jehovah, jubilee, manna, 
sabbath, Satan, seraph, and shibboleth. 

The English race has had intercourse, commercial, literary, 
or other, with the peoples of all lands. From most of these 



78 Word-Building. 

it lias brought home words which it has naturalized and 
made good English. 

From the Italian, we have imported such words as : — 

Alarm, balcony, bankrupt, canto, citadel, concert, contraband, 
cupola, duet, gondola, guitar, influenza, lava, malaria, motto, mas 
tache, opera, piano, pistol, portico, quota, regatta, sonnet, soprano= 
studio, trio, vista, and volcano. 

Prom the Spanish', such words as : — 

Armada, bravado, buffalo, cargo, cigar, cork, embargo, indigo, 
merino, mulatto,, negro, renegade, sherry, tornado, and vanilla. 

From the Portuguese, such as : — 
Caste, cocoa-nut, commodore, lasso, molasses, palaver, and tank. 

From the Dutch, such as : — 

Aloof, bluff, boor, brandy, bumpkin, elope, fop, gas, hustle, knapsack, 
landscape, loiter, luff, measles, ogle, reef, skates, skipper, sloop, wag< >n, 
yacht, and yawl. 

From the German, such as : — 

Dutch, feldspar, loafer, meerschaum, nickel, plunder, poodle, quartz, 
swindler, trull, and zinc. 

From the Slavonic, such as : — 
Calash, czar, knout, polka, sable, slave, and steppe. 

From the Persian, such as : — 

Bazaar, caravan, check, checkers, chess, ghoul, hazard, horde, jar. 
lemon, lilac, mummy, orange, rice, sash, shawl, and veranda. 

From the Hindu, such as : — 

Banyan, calico, chintz, jungle, pagoda, shampoo, sugar, and toddy. 



History of the English Language. 79 

From the Turkish, such as :— 
Bey, janissary, ottoman, and tulip. 

From the Malay;, such as : — 

Bamboo, bantam, gong, gutta-percha, mango, rattan, and sago. 

From the Polynesian? such as : — 
Boomerang, kangaroo, taboo, and tattoo. 

From the Chinese? such as :— 

China, junk, nankeen, serge, silk, tea, and typhoon. 

From the Arabic? such as : — 

Alcohol, algebra, alkali, candy, chemistry, cipher, cotton, crimson, 
elixir, gazelle, magazine, nadir, sofa, tariff, zenith, and zero. 

From the Worth American Indian? such as : — 
Hominy, moose, raccoon, skunk, squaw, tomahawk, and wigwam. 

From the West Indian? such as : — 

Buccaneer, cannibal, canoe, hammock, maize, potato, and tobacco. 

But, after all, the great component elements of English 
are the Anglo-Saxon and the Latin — the Latin mostly that 
of the Third and Fourth Periods, of course. 

It is from the Anglo-Saxon that the English derives all the 
grammar it has. The grammatical forms of the English 
noun, pronoun, and verb are those not sloughed off during 
the centuries immediately succeeding the Norman Conquest. 
Some, like the s for the plural and for the possessive singular 
of nouns, had a footing in the Anglo-Saxon, and have been 
universalized by the influence of the Norman-French. But 
the Norman-French can hardly be said to have introduced 
anything new into our grammar. 



80 



Word-Building. 



o 


f 1. 


Anglo- Saxon. 


CO 

Q 


2. 


Latin „. 


o 


3. 


Greek* 


O 

a 

o 
o 


4. 
5. 


Indo-European. 
Celtic 


CO j 

i— i < 






03 


G. 


Scandinavian. . 


<! 






Id 


7. 


Hebrew. 


o 

o 






m 

CO 


8. 


Such other Lan- 


3 




guages as 


W 







Of the First Period. 
Of the Second Period. 
j Of the Third Period. 



I Of the Fourth Period. 



(The original words of the Ind.-Europ. family.) 

t Of the First Period. 
\ Of the Second Period. 
( Of the Third Period. 

j Of the First Period. 
I Of the Second Period. 



the Italian, the Spanish, the 
Portuguese (these three Latin in 
origin), the Dutch, the German, 
the Slavonic, the Persian, the 

Hindu, the Turkish, the Ma- 
lay, the Polynesian, the Chi- 
nese, the Arabic, the North 

American Indian, and the 
West Indian. 



Lesson XXXIII. 

THE ANGLO-SAXON AND THE LATIN IN OUR VOCABULARY. 

The Norman, words, Latin as we have seen, came into 
English (1) to supply the demands of the blended peoples 
for terms to denote things and express thoughts which the 
Saxons never had, and so had no words to denote. They 



History of the English Language. 81 

came (2) to fill the gap caused by the loss of words which th^. 
Anglo-Saxons before the Conquest did have. They came (3) 
as contestants for the places already filled by the Anglo- 
Saxon. In this contest the Latin (a) sometimes dislodged 
the Anglo-Saxon. Labor and toil do duty now instead of 
swincan, and voice has supplanted stefen. Often in the 
struggle the Latin (b) divided the ground with the Anglo- 
Saxon. Color exists side by side with hiw or hue, and joy 
with bliss. But oftener, perhaps, the Anglo-Saxon (c) held 
their positions, and the Latin words never secured the cov- 
eted footing in the language. 

Latin words have come in, in great numbers, since, to 
satisfy the demands of our ever-increasing knowledge and 
higher development. For little attempt has been made to 
meet these insatiable requirements by any effort to com- 
pound into new vocables the old Anglo-Saxon material pre- 
served. 

These, too, have entered into contest with the Anglo- 
Saxon for the places occupied by them. 

We may say that the pronouns ; the numerals ; the irreg- 
ular verbs (except strive), including the auxiliaries ; the 
prepositions and the conjunctions (excepting save, except, 
concerning, and because, and a few others) are Anglo-Saxon. 
A slight percentage of the other words are Indo-European ; 
some are Celtic, some Scandinavian, some Greek, some He- 
brew, and some have been adopted from the peoples with 
whom the English have had intercourse. 

The remainder are Anglo-Saxon and Latin. It is of this 
remainder, the bulk of the vocabulary, more than ninety 
per cent, of it, that we wish now to speak. And we should 
speak more plainly if we could speak specifically, if we could 
throw these words into classes and look at them there. This 



82 Word- Building. 

we cannot do here, but we can give the results reached by us 
in work of this kind done elsewhere — results which not 
unfaithfully picture the functions of the Anglo-Saxon and of 
the Latin in the English vocabulary. 

What Words Belong to the Anglo-Saxon. — The names of 
such things (1) in the animal and vegetable worlds as were 
native to the island, and generally known before the Norman 
Conquest ; the names (2) of the outward parts of the animal 
body, and of those internal organs that easily reveal their 
presence ; (3) of common buildings and their necessary 
parts ; (4) of the household equipment that families living 
in such houses must have ; (5) of such farm implements as a 
people rude in arts and agriculture could make and use ; (6) 
of occupations mainly manual ; (7) of the essential divisions 
of time ; (8) the verbs that express many of the customary 
acts in the material world and operations in the mental ^ and 
(9) adjectives that denote obvious sensible qualities, and the 
obtrusive attributes of the intellect, of the emotional nature, 
and of character ; — these are mainly Anglo-Saxon. 

What Words Belong to the Latin.— But to name (1) things 
in the animal and vegetable kingdoms seen by travel ; (2) to 
denote buildings higher and more complex than the common 
dwelling, and to mark those parts of them and those belong- 
ings to them unfamiliar to the Anglo-Saxons, but needful, 
we should think, even for comfort ; (3) to indicate those 
parts of the body and their functions which science has dis- 
closed ; to denote (4) the longer or the more minute divisions 
of time, and the occupations that indicate higher culture ; 
and (5), generally, to mark the less ordinary physical acts, 
requiring, many of them, plan and combination, and to de- 
note the less obvious objects and qualities of objects in the 
outward world ; — to do these things we draw largely upon 



History of the English Language. 83 

the Latin element of the language. And when we turn to 
the words in English expressive (6) of civil and social organ- 
ization, or used (7) to denote intellectual acts, states, quali- 
ties, powers, possessions, products, or required (8) to express 
the higher feelings and the traits of character, or needed (9) 
to denote classes and general notions, — we find the contrast 
between the Anglo-Saxon and the Latin in English most 
striking. It is in words expressive of these things that the 
Anglo-Saxon element is painfully lacking. 

Lesson XXXIV. 

THE ANGLO-SAXON AND THE LATIN IN ACTUAL USE. 

The percentages of the Anglo- Saacon and the Latin, in 

English, used by writers and public speakers depend upon 
the man, upon his subject, and upon the culture of those 
addressed. But they depend in the showing still more largely 
upon the method of counting. If every word is counted 
every time it is used, the result reached will be one thing ; if 
each word is counted but once, no matter how many times it 
is used, the result reached will be quite another thing. The 
words oftenest employed, not alone in ordinary conversa- 
tion but for literary purposes as well, are the irregular verbs 
(especially the auxiliary), the pronouns, the articles, the prep- 
ositions, and the conjunctions. These with scarcely an ex- 
ception are Anglo-Saxon. So that the words constantly 
appearing, reappearing, on the pages of literature and 
in public discourse, as well as in colloquial speech, are 
almost exclusively Anglo-Saxon. As was said, then, the 
method of counting has much to do with the exhibit made. 
Marsh's Examination, — Our countryman, the eminent 



81 Word- Building. 

George P. Marsh, at one time made several excerpts from 
many British and American writers. lie counted each 
tvord every time it was found, and gave us the results in 
tables which show that the Anglo-Saxon words used by these 
men ranged from 70 to 95 per cent, of all the words em- 
ployed by them. We give these figures without judgment as 
to whether the extracts made were ample in number and in 
length to justify the claim that they fairly represent the levy 
which these men in their complete works made upon the 
Anglo-Saxon. 

Our Own Examination. — It came in our way, some years 
since, to make a far more extended examination of the words 
eminent writers and speakers choose. The different words of 
one American, Euf us Choate, found in his complete works, 
were brought together and arranged alphabetically. Twenty 
other distinguished men — ten British and ten American — 
were chosen. From each of these a speech, an argument at 
the bar, an oration, or some chapters of a book were taken, 
<tnd the words of each were alphabetically placed. No 
word in any one of the twenty-one lists thus formed tvas 
counted more than once, unless the several forms of it 
were from distinct roots ; only one degree of an adjective or 
an adverb ; only one of the six or seven possible forms of 
any verb ; only one case of any noun or pronoun. Let 
this be borne in mind ; it is the one point of difference, 
to be emphasized here, between our work and that of Mr. 
Marsh. 

After the classification of the words, a count was made, 
and the percentages were reached. Our tables show that 
twenty-one representative authors in representative efforts 
use a per cent, of Latin words varying from 56 J to 72^, and 
of Latin and Greek together from 63 t 7 q- to 75 t 1 q-, over against 



History of the English Language. 85 

a per cent, of Anglo-Saxon ranging only from 23 T 4 ^ to 33 T %. 
This is the showing if each word is counted bnt once. 

The general belief (1) that for ordinary communication we 
make the heaviest drafts upon the Anglo-Saxon ; (2) that 
the words coming most frequently to the tongue and often- 
est repeated on the page are Anglo-Saxon ; and (3) that, 
while on social or business topics we can construct whole 
paragraphs without a word of Latin, it is all but impossible 
to frame a sentence without the Anglo-Saxon ; — this belief 
the figures of the comparison do not disturb. And this is 
much to confess; for it is an acknowledgment that our 
dependence upon the Anglo-Saxon is absolute, so far as it 
extends. Nor do these figures (4) give the number of the 
Anglo-Saxon and of the Latin words in our vocabulary, or 
settle their ratio to each other, or (5) decide the question 
whether, had our ancestors of the thirteenth and fourteenth 
centuries imitated the ancient Greeks or the modern Ger- 
mans, and formed new words by compounding native mate- 
rial, we might not now be using a vocabulary all of a piece, 
and yet ample for our utmost needs. 

Our Need of Both Anglo-Saxon and Latin. — But from the 
exhibit made by the comparison above we think we are 
warranted in claiming that we cannot do without the Latin 
words in our English ; that, when we rise above the com- 
monplace in matter and in manner, we find such words 
indispensable. We say indispensable ; for, while the ferry- 
boat that takes us daily to our place of business is indis- 
pensable, the transatlantic steamer that bears us to Europe is 
not less so, even though we go but once. 

It would seem that these two classes of words, mingling 
freely in the current of every English sentence, have dwelt 
so long and pleasantly together, that we should cease to call 



86 Word-Building. 

either class foreign, alien. Often we cannot, without close 
scrutiny, tell which words are Latin and which are Anglo- 
Saxon. By some ear-marks, perhaps, but certainly not by 
their length, by their strangeness, or by his inability to handle 
them deftly, would one of but average culture suspect that 
the following nouns, adjectives, and verbs belong to the 
Latin :— 

Age, art, case, cent, cost, fact, form, ink, line, mile, pain, pair, part, 
pen, piece, price, rule, sound, ton, tone, and vail; apt, clear, cross, 
crude, firm, grand, large, mere, nice, pale, plain, poor, pure, rare, real, 
rich, round, safe, scarce, sure, vain, and vast ; add, aid, aim, boil, close, 
cook, cure, fail, fix, fry, mix, move, pay, save, serve, try, turn, and 
use. 

These, and hundreds of other short Latin words, as well 
understood as the simplest Anglo-Saxon, are mostly without 
Saxon equivalents. But even those with Saxon duplicates 
are necessary ; they give to our speech a rich synonymy that 
aids us in making and in expressing the finer distinctions in 
thought. 

The Latin are often (1) the most forcible words in English. 
What Anglo-Saxon verb of teaching matches in vigor incul- 
cate — to drive in with the heel ? What other adjective 
denoting health has the strength of r obtest — oaken ? Such 
Words, unfortunately, are pregnant with meaning mainly 
to the etymologist. In this they differ from what the vigor- 
ous, self -explaining Anglo-Saxon words would have been had 
that element been fostered. They give (2) conciseness to ex- 
pression ; like canals across isthmuses they shorten the route 
— witness mutual, reanimate, circumlocution. Oftener than 
the Anglo-Saxon they are (3) metaphorical, and flash upon 
the thought a poetic light ; as, dilapidated, applied to for- 
tune or dress ; ruined, to character ; luminous, to expression. 



History of the English Language. 87 

They impart (4) grace and smoothness to style — are the musi- 
cal, melodious, and mellifluous words of the language. They 
give (5) pomp and stateliness to discourse, and make possible 
the grand manner of Sir Thomas Browne, of Milton, and of 
De Quincey. A vocabulary like ours, duly compounded of 
the Teutonic and the Eomance, has a manifoldness and an 
affluence of wealth that adapt it to every kind of writing, 
and are wonderfully stimulative of it. And so while the 
literatures in other languages excel, each in some single 
department, ours is confessedly eminent in all. 

While it is difficult to exaggerate the work and the worth 
of the Anglo-Saxon in English, we deprecate what has been 
called the "violent reaction" that has set in, in favor of it 
— a reaction which, carried to the extreme, would practically 
disinherit us of vast verbal possessions. But, without any 
wish or effort to champion the much decried Latin element, 
we may safely say that this reaction cannot be carried to the 
extreme. 

We are glad to find the wise Alexander Bain breaking out, 
on the opening page of his work, On Teaching English, into, 
" To write continuously in anything like pure Saxon is plainly 
impossible. Moreover, none of our standard English authors, 
whether in prose or in poetry, have thought it a merit to be 
studiously Saxon in their vocabulary." 

The words chosen should be appropriate to the topic, and 
level to the comprehension of those addressed. This much 
we may properly insist upon ; but it would be unwise to 
encourage our pupils to seek for such words in the Anglo* 
Saxon element alone. 



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